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I 



STUDIES OF 
ELEMENTARY- SCHOOL READING 
THROUGH STANDARDIZED TESTS 



WILLIAM SCOTT GRAY 



FPB 28 1917 



©CI.A455768 



^ 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Problem i 

II. Summary of Previous Investigations 2 

Description and Criticism of Four Standard Tests 2 

Topical Summary of Methods and Results of Reading Investigations 10 

Descriptive Bibliography of Reading Investigations 26 

III. Description of the Reading Tests 32 

The Standard Oral-Reading Test 32 

The Standard Silent-Reading Tests 47 

Directions for Giving the Oral-Reading Test 55 

Directions for Giving the Silent-Reading Tests 58 

IV. Validity of the Oral-Reading Test 60 

Descriptive Summary of the Initial Study 60 

Organization of the Second Series of Paragraphs 73 

Organization and Standardization of the Third Series of Paragraphs 74 

Description of the Measuring Scale for Oral Reading .... 92 
Validity of the Adopted Values in the Measuring Scale for Oral 

Reading 93 

Limitations of the Scale 96 

V. Validity of the Silent-Reading Tests and Standards ... 99 

The Preliminary Study of Silent Reading ........ 99 

Critical Discussion of the Adopted Method of Testing Silent 

Reading 103 

Validity of the Standards of Achievement in Speed and Quality 

of Silent Reading 112 

VI. The Investigation of Reading in a City System . . . . : ti8 

Importance of Reading Investigations 118 

Description of the School Population Tested 119 

Method of Training Those Who Gave the Tests 120 

Summary of the Oral-Reading Results by Grades 120 

Variations in Schools 124 

iii 



iv TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Analysis to Show Influence of Sex, Method, and Nationality on 

Progress in Oral Reading 126 

Achievement in Cleveland as Compared with Other Schools . . . 128 

Results of the Silent-Reading Tests 130 

General Relation between Rate and Quality in Silent Reading . . 131 

Explanation of the Cleveland Record 138 

Summary and Conclusions 141 

VII. Special Problems in Reading 142 

Periods of Growth in Reading Achievement 142 

Comparison of Rates in Oral Reading and in Silent Reading . . 147 
Relation of Oral-Reading Achievement to Comprehension of 

Subject-Matter Read 149 

Conclusions 154 



DIAGRAM 
I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 



LIST OF DIAGRAMS 

Progress of 2,193 Pupils in Oral Reading . 
Progress of 2,654 Pupils in Rate of Silent Reading 
Progress of 2,654 Pupils in Quality of Silent Reading 

"Normal Surface of Frequency" 

Steps of Difference in Difficulty between Paragraphs 
"Surface of Normal Distribution" 



45 

53 
54 
70 
72 
83 



Location of the Paragraphs of the Scale on the Base Line of the 
Probability Curve for Each Grade 87 



Progress of 2,654 Pupils in Rate of Silent Reading 
Progress of 2,654 Pupils in Quality of Silent Reading 



114 
117 



Graphical Representation of Achievement of Schools in Oral 
Reading 122 

Average Scores in Oral Reading in Each Grade in All Elementary 
Schools and in Four Selected Schools 124 

Average Scores in Oral Reading in Each Grade in All Elementary 
Schools and in Three Selected Schools 125 

Average Scores in Oral Reading for Girls and for Boys in Each 
of the Eight Grades 127 

Average Scores in Oral Reading of Pupils in Each Grade Using 
the Ward Method and of Those Using the Aldine Method . 128 

Average Scores in Oral Reading of Pupils of Different Nation- 
alities 129 

Average Scores in Oral Reading in Six Grades in the Cleveland 
Schools and in Twenty-three Illinois Schools 130 

Average Scores in the Rate of Silent Reading of 1,831 Cleveland 
Pupils and of 2,654 Pupils of Thirteen Other Cities . . . 135 

Average Scores in the Quality of Silent Reading of 1,831 Cleve- 
land Pupils and of 2,654 Pupils of Thirteen Other Cities . . 135 



vi LIST OF DIAGRAMS 

DIAGRAM PAGE 

XIX. Percentage of 1,831 Cleveland Pupils Found in Each of Nine 

Groups in Speed and Quality in Silent Reading .... 136 

XX. Average Scores in Speed and Quality of Silent Reading in Each 
Grade in Cleveland, in Thirteen Other Cities, and in Three 
Selected Cleveland Schools 139 

XXI. Curve of Progress for Oral Reading 143 

XXII. Curve of Progress for Rate of Silent Reading 145 

XXIII. Curve of Progress for Quality of Silent Reading 146 

XXIV. Comparison of Oral- and Silent-Reading Rates of 471 Pupils 

and Students in the University of Chicago 148 

XXV. Influence of a Fifteen-Minute Study-Period on Achievement in 

Oral Reading 151 

XXVI. Comprehension of the Subject-Matter Read as Related to the 

Mastery of Mechanical Difficulties ......... 152 



LIST OF TABLES 

TABLE PAGE 

I. Teacher's Check Card (Phonetic) 3 

II. Number of Words Read per Second by Grades .... 19 

III. Percentage of Increase in Reading Rate through Practice . 20 

IV. Comparison of Rates in Oral Reading and in Silent Reading 23 
V. Comparison of Ranks of Pupils in Speyer School ... 37 

VI. Tabulation Sheet for Individual Records 38 

VII. Score Sheet for Individuals and Classes 42 

VIII. A Measure for Oral Reading 42 

IX. Distribution of the Rankings of the Specimen Paragraphs 

by Each of the Judges 62 

X. Number of Times Each Paragraph Was Given Certain 

Rankings by the Judges 63 

XL Steps of Difference between the Successive Paragraphs of 

the Scale 64 

XII. Percentages Correct and P.E. Equivalents for Each Para- 
graph 69 

XIII. Number of Failures by Grades 81 

XIV. Percentage of Failures by Grades . 82 

XV. Values of the Normal Probability Integral Corresponding to 

Values of P.E 85 

XVI. Location of Each Paragraph of the Scale for Each Grade . 86 

XVH. Steps of Difference from One Paragraph to the Next for 

Each Grade 89 

XVIII. Steps of Difference in Difficulty between the Paragraphs 

of the Scale 90 

XIX. Average Shift of the Scale in Difficulty from Grade to Grade 90 

XX. Steps of Difference in Difficulty between the Paragraphs of 

the Scale 91 

vii 



viii LIST OF TABLES 

TABLE PAGE 

XXI. Average Shift from Grade to Grade 91 

XXII. Measuring Scale for Oral Reading 92 

XXIII. Influence of Methods of Scoring on Total Score .... 94 

XXIV. Influence of Methods of Scoring on Relative Rank ... 94 

XXV. Influence of Giving One-Half Credit to Pupils Failing on 

Paragraph 1 95 

XXVI. Influence of Methods of Scoring on Relative Ranks of Schools 96 

XXVII. Speed and Quality Records for 3,161 Preliminary Tests . . 102 

XXVIII. Influence of Different Selections on Rank in Silent Reading 106 

XXIX. Relative Achievement of Pupils in Reproductions and 

Answers to Questions 107 

XXX. Comparison of the Percentage Reproduced Orally with Per- 
centage Reproduced in Writing 107 

XXXI. Comparison of Reproduction Grades When Scored by the 
"Word-Counting" Method and by the "Group-Idea" 
Method in 

XXXII. Relative Difficulty of the Questions for Each Selection . . 112 

XXXIII. Distribution of 2,654 Pupils with Reference to the Time 

Required to Read 100 Words Silently 113 

XXXIV. Distribution of 2,654 Pupils with Reference to Scores for 

Quality of Silent Reading 116 

XXXV. Scores in Oral Reading in Each Grade in Forty-four Schools 121 

XXXVI. Specimen Record Sheet Showing Number and Character of 

Errors Made 126 

XXXVII. Distribution of 1,831 Pupils of Cleveland with Reference to 

the Time Required to Read 100 Words Silently . . . 132 

XXXVIII. Average Speed and Quality Scores in Silent Reading of 

1,831 Cleveland Pupils and of 2,654 Pupils of Other Cities 134 

XXXIX. Average Quality Scores in Silent Reading of All Pupils 

Reading at Various Rates . . .137 



CHAPTER I 

THE PROBLEM 

The purpose of this monograph is to present the results of an 
investigation made to determine the achievement of boys and girls 
in oral reading and in silent reading. In the study of oral reading 
achievement was based on the rate of reading and on the number of 
errors of various types which were made. In the study of silent 
reading achievement was based on the rate of reading and on the 
ability of the pupils to reproduce what was read and to answer 
specific questions concerning the subject-matter of the tests. 

The pursuance of this investigation has involved the additional 
problem of organizing and standardizing tests for use in measuring 
reading achievement. In this connection an attempt was made to 
derive reading tests which would secure data that were productive 
along the following lines : (a) in presenting clearly certain character- 
istic differences between oral and silent reading; (b) in comparing 
the achievement of individuals, classes, schools, and entire systems 
in oral reading and in silent reading; (c) in revealing sources of 
strength and weakness in the achievement of pupils; (d) in showing 
the influence of certain factors on achievement, such as methods of 
teaching, sex, nationality, etc.; (e) in determining the correlation 
between significant phases of reading, such as speed and comprehen- 
sion in silent reading. 

The report of this study divides itself naturally into the follow- 
ing parts: a summary of previous investigations; a description of 
the tests used in the investigation; a discussion of the derivation 
and validity of the oral-reading test and of the silent-reading tests ; 
a study of reading in a city system; and a report on special prob- 
lems in reading. 



CHAPTER II 
SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 

Up to the present time more than forty investigations have been 
made which relate to the measurement of achievement in reading. 
Many of these investigations have been carried out along similar 
lines, and they can readily be reviewed as a unit. Some of the 
investigations have resulted in the development of more or less 
highly standardized tests of reading. For the purpose of this sum- 
mary four of these studies, including the tests of Thorndike, Kelly, 
and Jones, will be discussed separately. In summarizing the 
investigations which have been made, three purposes have been 
kept in mind: (i) to give a brief description and criticism of four 
types of tests which have been devised; (2) to summarize by 
topics the methods and results of the studies which have been 
carried on up to the present; and (3) to present a descriptive 
bibliography to which investigators interested in the problem of 
measuring reading achievement may refer. 

DESCRIPTION AND CRITICISM OF FOUR STANDARD TESTS 
STANDARDS IN MECHANICS OF ELEMENTARY READING 

This test was devised by R. G. Jones (2o:37), 1 of Rockford, 
Illinois, to test a pupil's ability to recognize words at sight. It 
consists of a series of words which appear most frequently in ten 
widely used primers. A section of the Teacher's Check Card is 
given below. The words listed in the table are the words upon 
which the pupil is tested. The numbers to the left of the words 
indicate the "recurrent values," or the frequency of occurrence of 
these words in the primers which were analyzed. The numbers in 
the horizontal line at the top of the table refer to the pupils tested. 
The entries (X) in the table indicate in each case that the word 
at the left was missed by the pupil. 

When the words of the test were originally selected, they were 
carefully analyzed into sight and phonic words. "In the phonetic 

1 See pp. 26 ff. for all such references. 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 



list were tabulated all of those simple English words that belong to 
the 150 common phonetic families. These are mostly words of a 
single syllable. In the sight list were tabulated various irregular 
words that do not employ one of the common phonograms, and 
most words of two or more syllables" (20:38). After the tabula- 
tion was complete the words were arranged in the order of their 
frequency of occurrence in the ten primers analyzed. 

In giving the tests an investigator may use the two standard 
vocabulary lists and make separate tests or he may choose words 
from both lists and make a single composite test. The test is given 
as follows: A card on which the words are printed in primer type 
is placed in the hands of the pupil. The teacher has at hand a card 
similar to the one shown in Table I. As the pupil pronounces the 

TABLE I 

Teacher's Check Card (Phonetic) 





Pupil 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


& 


9 


10 


1,101 bit 


X 


X 




X 


X 


X 




X 


X 


X 


831 hand 




731 stay 






















622 ran 






















611 ill 


X 


X 






X 










X 


541 pin 
















489 cow 






















4 3 ^ that 






















426 hot 






















403 shake 


X 


X 






X 










X 








































































































288 corn 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 



words of his list the teacher checks on her card the words upon 
which the pupil fails. The column then presents a fair picture of 
the pupil's ability to recognize the words which were listed. When 
all the columns are filled, the card presents a picture of the ability 
of a class. Thus individual ability, together with the effectiveness 
or ineffectiveness of class teaching, can be quickly determined. The 
score of a pupil is determined by finding the sum of the recurrent 



4 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

values of all the words pronounced. The class score is determined 
by finding the average of the individual scores. 

The test as it has just been described measures the ability of 
pupils to recognize individual words at sight. It is open to the 
objection that the words in the list are not in their natural setting. 
A pupil may not recognize an isolated word, but will recognize it 
at once in context. In order to meet this objection, Jones organized 
sentences in which these words are used and has printed them as 
reading lessons. As the pupil reads these lessons the teacher 
checks the errors on her score card. Individual and class scores 
are determined as described above. 

As the test is organized it serves as an excellent device for 
measuring a pupil's ability to recognize simple words at sight, 
either in isolation or in context. A question arises concerning the 
validity of a method of calculation which accepts the recurrent 
values of these words as an index of their difficulty. It would be in 
harmony with pedagogical principles to find some of the more diffi- 
cult words occurring in our primers more frequently than some of 
the less difficult words in order to give the pupil a larger number of 
opportunities to master them. Whether or not difficulty of pro- 
nunciation is complicated by factors other than frequency of 
recurrence in primers was not discussed in detail. It remains 
therefore for Jones to establish the validity of his assumption. 

Thorndike's {43:200) Reading Scale A for visual vocabulary. — The 
purpose of this scale is to measure the ability of a pupil to know the 
meanings of single words seen. It was designed for pupils of 
Grades IV-VIII inclusive, but may be used in the third grade, and 
is useful in the high school to some extent. A reproduction of the 
test is given below. 

Thorndike Reading Scale A 

VISUAL VOCABULARY 

Write your name here 

Look at each word and write the letter F under every word that means a 
flower. 

Then look at each word again and write the letter A under every word that 
means an animal. 

Then look at each word again and write the letter N under every word that 
means a boy's name. 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 5 

Then look at each word again and write the letter G under every word 
that means a game. 

Then look at each word again and write the letter B under every word 
that means a book. 

Then look at each word again and write the letter T under every word like 
now or then that means something to do with time. 

Then look at each word again and write the word GOOD under every word 
that means something good to be or do. 

Then look at each word again and write the word BAD under every word 
that means something bad to be or do. 

4. camel, samuel, kind, lily, cruel. 

5. cowardly, dominoes, kangaroo, pansy, tennis. 

6. during, generous, later, modest, rhinoceros. 

7. claude, courteous, isaiah, merciful, reasonable. 

8. chrysanthemum, considerate, lynx, prevaricate, reuben. 

9. ezra, ichabod, ledger, parchesi, preceding. 

10. crocus, dahlia, jonquil, opossum, poltroon. 

10.5. begonia, equitable, pretentious, renegade, reprobate. 

11. armadillo, iguana, philanthropic. 

The test is given as follows: A preliminary test similar to 
Scale A is given by way of preparation. This enables the teacher 
to make sure that each pupil understands exactly what is to be 
done. Copies of Scale A are then given out with these instructions : 
"Read what it says. Do what it tells you to do. Do your best. 
Hand in your paper when you have marked all the words that you 
know " (43 : 219) . Each pupil is allowed sufficient time to complete 
the test. When the pupil hands in his paper, it is quickly examined 
to determine if any of the exercises have been omitted. If the 
paper is incomplete, the pupil is asked to finish the test. The 
papers are scored by determining the number of wrongly marked 
and omitted words in each line. "The highest numbered line that 
a pupil does with one (or no) omission or error is taken as his score 
or measure. Similarly, the highest numbered line that the average 
of a class does with not over one omission or error is taken as the 
measure for the class" (43:208). 

From the standpoint of objectivity, accuracy, and precision the 
scale has been carefully planned. It is easily given and a large 
number of pupils may be tested at the same time. The records can 
be scored by relatively untrained testers if necessary. The scale 
can be increased by alternate series, so that pupils may be tested 



6 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

a number of times without danger of giving special training on the 
scale words used. The scale measures ability to understand 
printed words unconfused with ability to express one's self orally 
or in writing. All of these points are in its favor. 

Thorndike calls attention to the following limitations of the 
scale: (i) the small number and variety of words of each degree of 
difficulty; (2) the omission of pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, 
auxiliary verbs, and other words expressing relation; (3) the possi- 
bility that the scale measures a mixture of general stupidity, indo- 
lence, or mischief with inability to understand words; (4) the fact 
that a pupil has one chance in eight of being right by a mere guess. 

As previously stated, the test measures the pupil's ability to 
understand printed words only well enough to classify them. A 
fundamental question arises concerning the practical value of such 
measure. Thorndike maintains that as long as the degree of under- 
standing which is measured is objectively denned it makes almost 
no difference what degree of understanding is measured. If the 
test is a scientific scale per se, the point of view is probably valid. 
If the test is to be of greatest value for practical schoolroom pur- 
poses, it should measure achievement along the line of some clearly 
defined and highly desirable school product. If we do not know 
at present just what degree of understanding could be measured 
with greatest profit, further investigation and analysis should be 
undertaken to determine the degree of understanding most fre- 
quently required in the various grades. 

Thorndike' s {44:445) Scale Alpha 2 for measuring the under- 
standing of sentences. — The purpose of this scale is to measure the 
ability of pupils to understand the meaning of sentences and para- 
graphs. As prepared for use in the grades, the scale consists of a 
series of seven carefully graded exercises. The two simplest exer- 
cises are presented below. 

Scale Alpha 2. For Measuring the Understanding of Sentences 
set i. difficulty 4 (approximately) 

Read this and then write the answers. Read it again if you need to. 
John had two brothers who were both tall. Their names were Will and 
Fred. John's sister, who was short, was named Mary. John liked Fred 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 7 

better than either of the others. All of these children except Will had red 
hair. He had brown hair. 

1. Was John's sister tall or short ? 

2. How many brothers had John ? 

3. What was his sister's name ? 

SET n. DIFFICULTY 5.25 

Read this and then write the answers. Read it again if you need to. 

Long after the sun had set Tom was still waiting for Jim and Dick to 
come. "If they do not come before nine o'clock," he said to himself, "I will 
go on to Boston alone." At half past eight they came, bringing two other 
boys with them. Tom was very glad to see them and gave each of them one 
of the apples he had kept. They ate these and he ate one too. Then all went 
on down the road. 

1. When did Jim and Dick come ? 

2. What did they do after eating the apples ? 

3. Who else came besides Jim and Dick ? 

4. How long did Tom say he would wait for them ? 

The scale is printed in two sheets, one containing Sets I-IV 
inclusive, the other Sets IV-VII inclusive. In measuring the 
ability of a class the more difficult sets are not given except in 
the higher grades. The tests are given in order, beginning with 
the easiest. Forty minutes are allowed for the test, though most 
pupils finish well within that time. Hence the time required to 
perform the test is not considered in scoring the results. A care- 
fully devised method of scoring the results is presented and tables 
are included for determining the exact numerical statement of the 
reading ability of the class. In general, the scale fulfils the stand- 
ards of objectivity, definiteness, exactitude, and convenience. 

Scale Alpha 2 measures the ability of pupils to understand the 
meaning of sentences and paragraphs. Hence it measures one of 
the most valuable results sought by the school. The specific type 
of reading ability which is tested is careful analytic reading, such as 
accompanies problem-solving or grammatical analysis. Hence the 
test measures only a limited phase of one's ability to get meaning 
from sentences, and it emphasizes a type of mental ability which is 
more characteristic of older children than of younger. The time 
element is not considered; hence one of the important factors 
which make for efficiency in reading or study is omitted. Inasmuch 



8 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

as the scale consists of a synthesis of various elements, such as 
harder and harder paragraphs and questions of varying degrees 
of difficulty, the results can be used only as a gross measure of a 
pupil's ability to understand sentences. As Thorndike clearly 
admits, it would be much more valuable if the scale were so devised 
that it would reveal the specific causes of strength or weakness in 
the individual's gross achievement. In spite of the limitations 
which have just been pointed out, this test secures a body of objec- 
tive data which are very instructive to the classroom teacher, and 
the results may serve as the basis for intelligent criticism of instruc- 
tion along certain general lines. 

The Kansas silent-reading test. — This test was developed and 
standardized by Dean F. J. Kelly (25:63), of the School of Educa- 
tion, University of Kansas, while director of the training school in 
the State Normal School at Emporia. The entire test consists of 
carefully graded groups of exercises, one for the primary grades, one 
for the grammar grades, and one for the high school. The following 
exercises are chosen from the sixteen exercises which form the test 
for Grades III, IV, and V: 

No. 2. Value 1.2 
Think of the thickness of the peelings of apples and oranges. Put a line 
around the name of the fruit having the thinner peeling. 

APPLES ORANGES 

No. 5. Value 1.6 
If you would rather have a dollar than a little stone, do not put a line 
under dollar, but if you would rather have five dollars than a pencil, put a line 
under stone. 

DOLLAR STONE 

No. 16. Value 8.9 
If in the following words e comes right after a more times than e comes 
just after i, then put a line under each word containing an e and an i; but if 
e comes just before a more often than right after i, then put a line under each 
word containing an a and an e. 

RECEIVE FEATHER TEACHER BELIEVE 

At the time the test is given the teacher and pupils study the 
instructions together by way of preparation. A type exercise is 
given in the instructions. It is presented and discussed in such a 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS g 

way that the pupils should know exactly what is to be done. When 
the teacher is confident that all the pupils understand the instruc- 
tions, the signal is given to begin. At the end of five minutes the 
test is discontinued and the papers are collected. The results are 
scored as follows: "Every answer given is counted either as wholly 
right or wholly wrong. Where the child's answer is incorrect, cross 
out the value indicated for that exercise in the margin. Add the 
values of the exercises which are correctly answered. The sum is 
the child's score" (26:20). The correct answers to some of the 
more difficult exercises are given as a safeguard in scoring. 

This test has been used widely in various parts of the country 
and it has been highly recommended by many. Professor E. A. 
Turner, director of the training school of the Illinois State Normal 
University, who has used the test in his school, made the following 
comments concerning it in a recent bulletin: "This test will appeal 
to practical school men. It is definite, simple, and easily presented. 
The results can be quickly and definitely determined. In practica- 
bility it ranks with the Thorndike and Ayres handwriting scales 
. . . ." (45:28). These are very commendable points and their 
value should not be depreciated. 

The principles which guided Kelly in the organization of his 
tests were in substance as follows : The ability to get meaning from 
the printed page is a complex ability, dependent upon many different 
factors. The two main factors, each one dependent upon a variety 
of causes, are the speed with which the reader can get over the lines 
and the accuracy with which he can comprehend the meaning. In 
the interest of simplicity it was desirable to combine these two 
factors in a single mark. The plan was adopted, therefore, of 
measuring the child's ability to read by the number of reading 
exercises which he could comprehend accurately in a given time. 
In order that ability to get meaning might not be confused with 
ability to reproduce meaning in a written composition, the written 
interpretation of the exercise was reduced to a minimum. Further- 
more, Kelly endeavored to devise a test which would test ability 
to get meaning from the printed page, unconfused with the diffi- 
culty caused by obscure words or the lack of a particular fund of 
information. 



io STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

A careful study of the exercises reveals the fact that the diffi- 
culties of the selections are determined by a combination of various 
factors, even though Kelly attempted to avoid this difficulty. 
The exercises vary widely as to vocabulary and construction. In 
some cases the exercise contains very few words and in other cases 
the task imposed on memory is much greater. Some exercises 
require a direct, straightforward type of reasoning; other exercises 
are comparable to a puzzle. If the scale were to be one of reasoning 
through reading, it would seem better to reduce difficulties of 
vocabulary and construction to a common level and have the diffi- 
culties in reasoning increase by a series of equal increments. If, on 
the other hand, it is to be purely a reading test, it would seem that 
the difficulties in reasoning should be kept more on a common level 
and those of vocabulary and construction, or both, should increase 
by a series of equal increments. 

Furthermore, the test as devised confuses ability to comprehend 
the problem which is suggested in a given exercise and ability to 
solve the problem. Evidence comes from many sources that pupils 
fail to put down the right answer, although they are able at the 
time to state the character of the answer desired. According to 
the method of scoring which is used, each correct answer indicates 
perfect comprehension, while all incorrect answers are interpreted 
as indicating no comprehension. This interpretation, as we have 
shown above, is unjust in many cases. It would seem, therefore, 
that in trying to avoid the confusion of comprehension and repro- 
duction Kelly has introduced another confusion the significance of 
which cannot be overlooked. 

TOPICAL SUMMARY OF METHODS AND RESULTS OF READING 
INVESTIGATIONS 

Most of the reading investigations which are summarized under 
this heading have been carried on with large groups of children 
under ordinary classroom conditions. Some of them may be criti- 
cized from the standpoint of scientific accuracy. They are included 
in this summary because of the suggestiveness of the methods which 
were employed. A number of laboratory investigations of read- 
ing are included for the same reason. Each investigation which 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS n 

is reported merits separate discussion. The topical method of 
summarizing these studies has been chosen because of the added 
emphasis which such a summary gives to certain important issues 
connected with methods of testing reading. 

Subject-matter for tests. — The subject-matter for reading tests 
has been chosen from sources unfamiliar to the pupils and from 
familiar sources, and, in some cases, it has been composed by the 
experimenter to meet the special needs of the test. Waldo (47 : 13) 
selected reading material from a school paper. This was given to 
the pupils for the first time in the test itself in order that the 
material might be unfamiliar to all. Starch (42:9), on the other 
hand, selected passages from grade readers. He justifies this pro- 
cedure on the ground that passages are then chosen which are best 
adapted to the reading capacity of children. He further states that 
" there is every indication on the basis of the tests made thus far 
that the familiarity gained in ordinary reading in school with any 
passage will not appreciably affect the tests unless the reading has 
been done very recently, say within a month preceding the test" 
(42: 11). The writer has found that pupils who have read a selec- 
tion but once recognize it immediately as one that they have read 
after an interval of one year. Before re-reading the story many 
pupils were able to reproduce with considerable accuracy its essen- 
tial points. These facts have led the writer to favor the plan of 
selecting unfamiliar passages for the test. Gilliland (13 : 13) com- 
posed several passages to meet certain requirements of his tests. 
This plan has many advantages, especially if the composer is a 
fluent writer. 

Number of selections used. — Investigators differ in their practice 
relative to the number of selections used in a test series. Courtis 
(7 1376) used the same passage for all grades from the fourth through 
the high school and university. This method makes it possible to 
use a constant body of material upon which to base rate and repro- 
duction scores. The method is open to the criticism that the pas- 
sage is not equally well adapted to the reading capacity of all the 
students tested. Starch (42 : 2) selected a graded series of passages 
as test material. He considers that it is highly important to adapt 
the reading material to the vocabularies and the range of ideas of 



12 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

the respective groups of pupils tested. This he does by selecting 
a passage appropriate for each grade. Oberholtzer (28:319-22) 
gave separate selections to each grade. He did not check the diffi- 
culty of the passages in any way. He gave each grade two tests 
with passages which were appropriate for the grade. The average 
results were used as speed records. The validity of this method 
depends largely upon the appropriateness of the selections. Waldo 
(48: 255) used a test series consisting of two selections, one of which 
was used for the third and fourth grades and the other for the fifth, 
sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Waldo failed to have either the 
fourth or the fifth grade read both selections. Hence it was impos- 
sible for him to compare the achievement of the pupils in the lower 
grades with the achievement of the pupils in the upper grades. 

Form in which the material was presented to the pupils. — Many 
investigators presented the material to the pupils in whatever form 
it happened to be printed when selected, while other investigators 
have modified the form somewhat in order to secure more satisfac- 
tory results. Waldo (47 : 13) used copies of Current Events, a school 
paper. He distributed the papers face down on each desk. At the 
signal to begin the papers were turned over and the pupils began 
reading at an assigned point. Oberholtzer (29:3) used selections 
chosen from school readers. Each pupil opened his book to the 
page preceding the one on which the class was to read. At a signal 
each pupil turned the page of his book and began to read immedi- 
ately. Brown (5:481) used printed selections of about a page and 
a half in length so arranged as to have the form of the two pages 
of an open book. When the printed selections were passed out, they 
were placed face down on the pupils' desks. At a signal each pupil 
turned his paper and began to read. Courtis (8 : 47) used specially 
printed materials. None of the methods described above takes into 
account the fact that the average reader must read a few lines 
before he assumes his habitual rate. This can be easily provided 
for in the case of Oberholtzer's test by having the class read 
together a portion of the preceding page before turning to the test 
passage. 

Duration of test. — Some investigators who carried on their inves- 
tigations under laboratory conditions used a definite amount of 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 13 

subject-matter and made a record of the time required to complete 
the reading. This method has the advantage that there is a con- 
stant body of material upon which to base records of speed and of 
comprehension. The method has a serious limitation in the fact 
that large groups of pupils cannot be tested at the same time. 
Most investigators have required pupils to read for a definite 
period of time, marking the amount read during the reading inter- 
val. This method enables the investigator to secure records from 
large groups of pupils at the same time. The objection to the 
method has been offered that some pupils may not record accurately 
the amount of subject-matter read. Furthermore, the number of 
ideas read by the various pupils differs, and as a result it is very 
difficult to devise an equitable basis upon which to grade repro- 
ductions. 

Among the investigators who have used time as the basis for 
determining the length of the reading test, practice differs as to the 
length of the reading interval. Starch (42 : 7) had the pupils read 
for thirty seconds. He supports this practice by citing check tests, 
which showed that the average amount read per second was prac- 
tically the same whether the reader read for thirty seconds or for 
a longer period of time. The subjects in the check tests were 
adults. His results would have been more convincing had they 
been secured from children. The majority of investigators have 
adopted one minute as a convenient reading interval. The work 
of Courtis (8:47) and of Brown (5:481) may be cited as illustra- 
tions. Oberholtzer (29:3) adopted a reading interval of two 
minutes, and Waldo (47:13) adopted an interval of five minutes. 
The objection to the longer periods is a very practical one. As the 
quantity of reading material increases, we may naturally expect 
that the amount reproduced will increase. The longer the repro- 
ductions the more arduous becomes the task of scoring the results. 

Means of indicating the portion of the selection read. — The investi- 
gators who have the pupils read a given amount of material are not 
confronted with this problem. The times at which the reader 
begins and ends his reading are noted and the total interval is 
entered on the record sheet. Various methods have been used to 
indicate the amount read when the pupils read for a definite interval 



14 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

of time. Courtis (8:47) and others had the pupils draw a line 
around the last word read. Oberholtzer (29:3) had the pupils 
write down the last word read. This method might lead to some 
errors, since the same word may appear in each of several lines. 
This objection can be overcome easily by having pupils record the 
last sentence or portion of the last sentence read. There is a dis- 
tinct advantage in having pupils write down rather than mark the 
last words read. In case the same printed selections are to be used 
by other pupils, the marks left by previous groups may influence 
the pupil unduly in the reading rate which he assumes and in the 
position at which he places his mark. 

Who shall give the tests. — Abell (1 : 283) had the students secure 
their own time records before coming to class. This method allows 
the widest range of conditions under which the test is given. Very 
careful instructions may enable mature students to eliminate most 
of the errors. It is questionable whether results secured in this 
way by elementary-school pupils are worth much. Waldo (47 : 13) 
had the same teacher give all the tests in the various rooms, thus 
eliminating those errors caused by differences in the people giving 
the tests. Oberholtzer (29:2) and others, as Courtis and Starch, 
had the teachers of the various rooms give the tests to their respec- 
tive groups of pupils. This method has the advantage that the 
normal conditions of the classroom are not disturbed as they would 
be if a stranger were introduced. A source of error lies in the fact 
that many teachers are untrained in the technique of giving tests. 
It is pointed out in the report of the Cleveland Survey (23:256) 
that each teacher who gives tests for the first time finds herself 
somewhat confused and liable to error. If a sufficient number of 
preliminary practice tests are given by the teacher, this source of 
error can be largely eliminated. 

Directions given to the pupils concerning speed and comprehen- 
sion. — There is common agreement among investigators that the 
pupils should be told that they will be questioned concerning 
the subject-matter read. Practice differs, however, relative to the 
information given to pupils concerning speed. Mead (27 1346) says 
nothing concerning speed, but tells the pupils that when they have 
finished the reading they will be asked to write all they can remem- 
ber of what was read. Oberholtzer (29:3) gives practically the 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 



15 



same instructions, telling the pupils that they should read the pas- 
sages in such a way that they will be able to report to him at the 
end of the reading. Brown (5:481) tells the pupils that they will 
be asked to tell what they have read, but that it is desired that they 
read as much as they can and get the thought. The practice of 
Brown, all other things being equal, is likely to secure the fairest 
results. To stress either thought or speed to the exclusion of the 
other may lead to undue emphasis of one or the other phase of 
reading. To emphasize both phases in the instructions is likely to 
lead to more equal distribution of effort during the reading. 

Terms in which rate is expressed.- — Most investigators have 
expressed the rate in terms of the number of words read per minute 
or per second of time. Starch (42:7) expressed rate in terms of the 
number of words read per second. Courtis (8:51) expressed rate 
in terms of the number of words read per minute. Pintner (32 : 335) 
used the number of lines read per minute as the unit for rate. 
Since the lines in different books vary more in length than do the 
words appropriate for a given grade, it seems much better, if com- 
parisons are to be made, to express rate in terms of the number of 
words read per minute or per second. 

Average rates may be secured by rinding the average number 
of words read in a given unit of time or by rinding the average 
amount of time required to read a given passage or selection. The 
average in each case may be expressed in terms of the number of 
words read per second. Attention is called to the fact at this 
point that erroneous conclusions will be reached if one compares 
an average rate secured by one method with an average rate 
secured by the other method. To illustrate this point, the follow- 
ing data are presented: 



Pupil 


No. of Words 
Read per 
Second 


No. of Words 
Read per 
Minute 


No. of Seconds 
per 100 Words 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 


I-33T 
i.66| 
2.00 

2-33i 
2.66I 


80 
100 
120 
140 
160 


75 
60 

5° 
42.8 

37-5 


Totals 




600 
120 
2.00 


265-3 
53- °6 
1.86+ 




No. of words per second 



16 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

The table shows the number of words read per second by each 
of five pupils; also the number of words read per minute and the 
number of seconds required to read ioo words. The average 
results expressed in terms of the number of words read per second 
differ. Hence if two groups of pupils of equal ability were tested 
and the average rate for one group were found by one method and 
the average rate for the second group were found by the other 
method, the results would differ, and any comparison based on these 
results would lead to erroneous conclusions concerning the relative 
ability of the two groups. The two mean or average results 
described in the foregoing illustration are known respectively as the 
arithmetic mean and the harmonic mean. Yule (An Introduction 
to the Theory of Statistics, p. 129) points out the fact that the har- 
monic mean always gives the smaller average. Hence investiga- 
tors, when making rigid comparisons of average rates in reading, 
should select average rates which have been derived by the same 
method. 

Methods of testing comprehension. — Practically all investigators 
have tested comprehension by having pupils write a reproduction 
of what they have read as soon as the reading has been completed. 
Pintner (32:335) and Oberholtzer (29:3) are good illustrations. 
Waldo (47 : 14) used answers to questions in addition to a reproduc- 
tion. Most of his comparisons are based on answers to questions 
alone. Kelly (25:64) raises objections to the reproduction method 
in the following terms: "It is generally agreed, I think, that the 
ability to reproduce is quite a separate ability from the ability to 
get meaning, and, therefore, it seems advisable to have a test of 
the ability to get meaning which involves a minimum of reproduc- 
tion." The position taken in this monograph is that the mental 
processes involved in getting meaning are varied and complex. 
Each of the tests mentioned above measures certain phases of com- 
prehension. A great variety of methods may and should be used 
in a thoroughgoing test of one's ability to get meaning. Neither 
a reproduction test, nor answers to questions, nor Kelly's test, nor 
all combined, serve as a complete test of comprehension. 

Methods of scoring comprehension — answers to questions. — Waldo 
(47:14) prepared a set of ten questions covering two columns of 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 17 

reading material. If the pupil read all of the subject-matter 
covered by the ten questions, he received a grade of 10 per cent for 
each question answered correctly. If the pupil read the subject- 
matter covered by five questions, a grade of 20 per cent was given 
for each question answered correctly. The question arises con- 
cerning the validity of ranking a person who answers three out of 
five questions right on a basis of equality with another person who 
answers six out of ten questions right. 

Scoring reproductions. — Most investigators have scored repro- 
ductions by the "idea-counting" method. The analysis of a 
passage into ideas is illustrated by Freeman (22:371) as follows: 

In our town | when a boy had a coon | he had to have a box turned upside 
down I to keep it in | and he had to have a little door in the box | to pull the 
coon out through | whenever he wanted to show it to other boys | or look at 
it himself | which was forty or fifty times a day | when he first got it. 

The plan involves determining the total number of ideas cor- 
rectly reproduced by the reader and expressing this number in 
terms of the ratio of the reproduced ideas to the total number of 
ideas. One of the variations from this general procedure is brought 
out in the following reference. 

Brown (5:481-82) examined each written reproduction care- 
fully and determined the percentage of ideas represented. In 
ascertaining the number of ideas reproduced by each child, every 
idea was counted which was in most respects complete and in 
general correctly stated, even though some of the less important 
details were lacking. The percentage grade determined in this way 
applied to "quantity of reproduction." The reproductions were 
examined a second time, and only those ideas were counted which 
were entirely correct in every respect and of which every detail was 
reproduced, though not necessarily in the words of the original. 
The percentage grade determined in this way applied to "quality 
of reproduction." Comparisons were made on the basis of both 
quantity of reproduction and quality of reproduction. 

The objection to this method of scoring reproductions is that 
it is very difficult to determine whether or not an idea is correctly 
enough reproduced to be counted as correct. If carefully done, the 
task is a laborious one. Several of our leading investigators have 



18 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

been forced to abandon the method because of its difficulties. The 
most direct printed statement to this effect is one by Courtis (8 : 50) . 
"The scoring of the amount of material reproduced proved long and 
tedious, and very few data on this point are available." 

Waldo (47:15) scores the reproductions by counting the total 
number of words. He criticizes this method as follows : "In many 
cases the record of the number of words reproduced means prac- 
tically nothing regarding the ability of the child in comprehension, 
for some wrote many meaningless phrases and jumbles of words. 
Often the phrase written related to other subjects called to mind in 
some way by the reading material. Others wrote briefly, telling 
excellently in a few words what was read." 

Starch (42 : 7) describes his method of scoring reproductions as 
follows: "The comprehension is determined by counting the num- 
ber of words written which correctly reproduce, the thought. The 
written account is carefully read, and all words which either repro- 
duce the ideas of the test passage incorrectly or add ideas not in 
the test passage or repeat ideas previously recorded are crossed 
out." This method has the advantage of being much more rapidly 
applied than the method of correct ideas. Furthermore, as shown 
elsewhere in this book, Starch's method is less subjective and almost 
as accurate as are the more painstaking methods. 

Index of reading achievement. — Some investigators have expressed 
achievement in both speed and comprehension in terms of a single 
index of achievement. Brown (5:482) defines "the reading unit" 
as follows: "One unit of reading efficiency is a reading ability in 
which such a rate of reading in words per second is combined with 
such a power of reproduction that the product of the number rep- 
resenting the rate and the average of the numbers representing the 
percentages of quantity and quality is unity. A person who can 
read at the rate of o . 5 words per second and whose quantity of 
reproduction is 3 per cent and whose quality of reproduction is 
1 per cent has one unit of reading efficiency." Waldo (47:17) 
multiplied the percentage grade by the number of words read per 
minute in order to derive a single unit of measurement. Gilliland 
(13: 19), after finding the number of ideas reproduced, divided this 
number by the time in seconds required to read the paragraph, 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 



19 



giving the percentage of an idea gained per second. Thus, if 5 
ideas were reproduced from a paragraph and it took 15 seconds to 
read the selection, the "reading value" would be expressed as 333 
per cent. Theoretically, all of these methods assume that the 
acquisition of ideas proceeds at a uniform rate throughout the 
reading interval. In reality we know that this does not occur. 
Nevertheless, practical considerations justify the acceptance of 
some index which shows general achievement. 

Rate of silent reading. — It is difficult to draw any final conclu- 
sions concerning the rate of silent reading from the studies which 
have been made because of the lack of uniformity in methods of 
procedure and in the reading materials used. The results of Ober- 
holtzer (29:7), Courtis (8:56), Brown (5:484), and Starch (42:15) 
are presented in Table II. Brown used separate selections for the 

TABLE 11 
Number of Words Read per Second by Grades 





Grades 




I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Oberholtzer 






2-3 


2.6 
2.6 


31 
30 


3-9 
3-6 

3-!7 

3-2 


4-7 
4-i 


4.8 


Courtis 






4.6 








2.01 
2. 1 


Starch 


i-5 


1.8 


2.4 


2.8 


3-6 


4.0 







third and sixth grades. Oberholtzer used separate selections for 
each grade without determining the relative difficulty of these selec- 
tions. Starch chose selections on the assumption that the rate 
should progress by equal steps from grade to grade. Courtis used 
the same selection for all grades. In order to make his results 
readily comparable with the results of other investigators, Courtis' 
results are expressed in this table in terms of the number of words 
read per second. 

In spite of the fact that the methods of testing varied in many 
details, there is surprisingly close correspondence in the results for 
the respective grades, particularly so for the third grade. The 
figures in the table reveal the further fact that progress in rate of 
silent reading continues throughout the grades. In this connection 



20 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



Courtis (8:51-52) called attention to the fact that the steady 
progress through the grades reaches adult speed at the ninth or 
tenth grade and afterward does not vary widely from these con- 
stant values. He suggests that a value of approximately 3 20 words 
per minute, or 5.3 words per second, for rapid reading and 200 
words per minute, or 3.3 words per second, for careful reading 
represent adult ability and the general limit of productive training. 
Courtis (7:387) gives the following tentative conclusions concern- 
ing the rate of normal and careful reading: "It will be seen that 
the curve for normal reading rises to a high value and does not 
reach its maximum until the high-school years. The curve for 
careful reading, on the other hand, is practically constant from the 
sixth grade on. This probably means that the rate and character 
of one's serious reading are fixed in the early school life." 

Waldo (47:47) carried on an investigation which showed the 
importance of the lower grades as a period in which pupils make 
marked progress in the speed of silent reading. A test was given 
in the fall and again in the spring to all grades from the third to the 
eighth inclusive to determine the percentage of increase in the 
speed of reading. Table III gives the results. 

TABLE III 

Percentage of Increase in Reading Rate through Practice 



Grade 


Fall Rate 


Spring Rate 


Percentage 
of Increase 


Grade 


Fall Rate 


Spring Rate 


Percentage 
of Increase 


III 

IV 

V 


76.4 

92.7 

113. 


149. 1 
163.3 

I29. 2 


95-2 
76.1 

14-3 


VI 

VII 

VIII.... 


128.0 
122.7 
147.2 


130. 1 
142.8 
158.9 


I. 2 

16.4 

8.0 



Waldo checked the relative difficulty of the selections which 
were used in the fall and spring tests. Hence a fair degree of 
reliance can be placed on his conclusions: "These figures show that 
the lower grades are very important in the development of reading, 
for there were made the greatest gains in the mechanics of reading. 
The third and fourth grades nearly doubled their rates from Sep- 
tember to March." 

Characteristics of slow and rapid readers. — Abell (1 : 286) pointed 
out that slow readers read a word at a time, while the rapid reader 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 21 

grasps phrases, clauses, and sometimes even sentences at a glance. 
Quantz (34:50) stated that the superiority of the rapid reader is 
shown by the fact that his memory of the substance of his reading 
is more exact than that of the slow reader; he introduces only two- 
thirds as many irrelevant thoughts; and the ten slowest readers 
show almost double the amount of lip movement that the most 
rapid do. Dearborn (9:118) found "that one who reads rapidly 
in a given style and class of subject-matter will read somewhat 
proportionately faster than a slow reader whatever within certain 
limits the nature of the style and the subject-matter." 

Factors influencing speed. — a) Care with which one reads: 
Courtis (8 : 50) and others secured results which show quite clearly 
that one's rate of reading varies with the attention given to the 
thought of the selection. 

b) Familiarity with subject-matter: Dearborn, as quoted in 
Huey (19: 178), found that a reader saved one- third the total read- 
ing time the second time he read a given selection. 

c) Lip movements: Hendricks (18:22) points out that in the 
first grade there is no appreciable difference between the rates at 
which lip movers and non-lip movers read; in the fourth grade 
lip movers read more slowly than non-lip movers; and in the 
eighth grade lip movers read decidedly more slowly than non-lip 
movers. Huey (19:175) points out exceptions to this general 
rule. 

d) Habits of eye movement: Huey's (19:175) observations led 
him to the following conclusions: "Each would fall into a reading 
pace that seemed most natural to him and would then read page 

after page in exactly the same time Habits of eye movement 

are doubtless important factors in setting this pace." Dearborn 
(10:115) supports the same point of view when he says: "It is in 
the writer's belief clearly indicated by the above experiments that 
one of the essentials of natural and rapid reading is that the reader's 
eye should at once be able to acquire a regular and uniform motor 
habit of reaction for each line." Huey (19: 178) points out excep- 
tions to this rule. Hence it is impossible to state definitely at 
present the extent to which there is correlation between speed in 
reading and regularity of eye movements. 



22 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

e) Power of assimilation: Ruediger (37:61) gives the following 
conclusions in connection with certain of his studies: "After having 
eliminated the physiological qualities pertaining to the mechanism 
of vision we saw that neither visual acuity, retinal sensitivity, nor 
the horizontal extent of acute vision had any significant correlation 
with reading rate. The essential factors that determine reading 
must be looked upon as central rather than peripheral. It is not 
a matter of getting material to the brain, but of assimilating it after 
it is there." Ruediger points out that the correlation between the 
number of reading pauses and the reading rate is apparently at 
variance with the conclusion just given. He states that the fact 
that more is seen at a fixation by a rapid reader than by a slow 
reader may just as well be the result of a strong power of assimila- 
tion as of more effective vision. 

/) Length of words: Slightly different points of view are held 
relative to the influence of the length of words on reading rate. 
Beer states that the reading time varies with the character of the 
words used. Thus a preponderance of monosyllabic words makes 
the reading time longer owing to the relatively greater meaning 
conveyed by monosyllabic words. Messmer reported similar 
results. Dearborn (9:98), in checking up Messmer's experiment, 
says: "It is not the short words as such, but the words which can- 
not be easily grouped with others which necessitate separate fixa- 
tion." 

g) Summary of factors: Quantz (34:50), considering all the 
factors which he found to contribute to rapid reading, said that 
they are, in the order of importance, "visual perception, practice 
as determined by amount of reading from childhood on, power of 
concentration, mental alertness estimated by rapidity of original 
composition, scholarly ability as decided by college records." 

Influence of practice on rate. — Huey and Dearborn each early 
expressed the belief that the reading rate might be increased by 
practice. Oberholtzer (29:8) reports an increase of 50 per cent in 
the rate after two weeks of practice in rapid reading. The tests 
showed also that oral expression and power to grasp the content 
were equally improved. Bowden (4:41) reports the results of some 
experiments with adults concerning the influence of practice on rate 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 



23 



as follows: "The figures show that for these two types of subjects 

the reading rate may be markedly increased by practice " 

Bowden (4:45) reports the effect of practice upon the rate of silent 
reading of a seven-year-old boy. The practice exercise in rapid 
silent reading was a ten-minute one daily for forty days. In the 
first exercise the boy read twelve words in a minute; in the last he 
read fifty-five words in a minute. Miss Bowden points out that 
the case is not a typical one, but she believes that the rapid-reading 
exercise had no small share of influence in the wonderful improve- 
ment made by the boy, and that other elementary-school children 
whose motor habits are not fixed might secure improvement in 
rate from simple exercises in speed of reading. 

Pintner (33 : 129) performed a series of experiments to determine 
whether the process of articulation could be eliminated, and if so, 
whether by practice the ordinary rate of reading and the average 
degree of comprehension could be attained. His conclusions are 
as follows: " From the results I think we are justified in saying that 
reading without articulation can take place, that it can be accom- 
plished as quickly as reading with articulation, and that practice in 
reading without articulation increases the ordinary rate of reading, 
no doubt due to the fact that after such practice the amount of 
articulation made use of is not so great as formerly." Pintner' s 
study does not determine whether articulation can be entirely 
eliminated from reading. 

Comparison of the rates of oral and silent reading. — Most of the 
studies made show the superiority of silent reading. Oberholtzer 
(29 : 7) presents a comparison between the rates of oral reading and 

TABLE IV 

Comparison of Rates in Oral Reading and in Silent Reading 



Grade 


Oral Reading 


Silent Reading 


Grade 


Oral Reading 


Silent Reading 


III 


2. 1 

2-3 
2.4 


2-3 
2.6 

3-1 


VI 

VII 

VIII 


2.8 
3-1 
3-9 


3-9 

4-7 
4-8 


IV 

V 





silent reading, as shown in Table IV. These figures show clearly 
that silent reading is a much more rapid process than oral reading 



24 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

and that the increase in the intermediate grades is much more 
marked in silent than in oral reading. 

Hendricks (18:16) found that first-grade pupils read somewhat 
more rapidly silently than orally. In the fourth and eighth grades 
the increase was very marked, being almost twice as rapid silently 
as orally in the eighth grade. His data further show the very 
interesting fact that if pupils are urged to increase their speed of 
silent reading in the third grade they become confused and read 
less rapidly. Mead (27:348) tested six sixth-grade classes and 
found that all classes but one read more rapidly silently. Pintner 
(32: 335) tested fourth-grade children and found that they averaged 
20 lines a minute orally and 28 lines a minute silently. 

Loss in oral-reading rate during the summer vacation. — P. C. 
Packer and H. W. Anderson (31:81) tested the rate of oral reading 
of pupils in the Iowa City public schools in Grades IB-VB inclu- 
sive to determine the influence of the summer vacation upon the 
pupils' reading rates. The rate of oral reading was determined 
during the latter part of May, 191 5, and again on September 18, 
1915, after one week of school. All children read from material 
with which they were familiar, and were allowed any prose selection 
they liked. The results showed that the pupils' reading rates had 
been decidedly lowered: "Grade IB read at the median rate of 
50 words per minute in May and 44 words in September, a loss of 
6 words per minute. Grade IA fell from 84 words to 49 words; 
Grade IIB from 125 to 68; Grade IIA from 145 to 124. Grade 
IIIB lost 14 words in its rate. Grade IIIA lost 18 words, and 
IVB, IVA, and VB lost respectively 14, 13, and 13 words in rate 
of reading from May to the end of the first week of school in Sep- 
tember." 

Relation between speed and quality. — Various positions have been 
taken with regard to this problem. Abell (1:284) stated that 
comprehension may be independent of absolute rate, since of three 
classes of readers — fast, moderate, and slow — some comprehend 
well and others fairly or poorly. Quantz (34:30) found that the 
rapid readers were on the average about 37 per cent superior to 
the slow readers in the quality of their work. "The superiority of 
the rapid reader is also shown by the fact that his memory of the 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 



25 



substance of his reading is more exact than that of the slow reader. 
He introduces only two-thirds as many thoughts not found in the 
original selections." Waldo (47 : 54) plotted the correlation between 
speed and comprehension for several grades. His conclusion is as 
follows: "No definite results can be stated, though it would seem 
that the rapid readers usually are strong in comprehension, although 
there are many exceptions." Hendricks (18:6) shows distinct 
positive correlation between speed and quality of silent reading. 
"In the percentage of thought reproduced the rapid readers excel, 
giving 91 per cent of the thought as compared with 76 per cent 
reproduced by the slow readers." 

Growth in comprehension. — Because of the wide variations in 
method and the differences in character of subject-matter used it 
is difficult to make many comparisons concerning comprehension. 
Growth in comprehension seems to continue at a more steady rate 
and to continue longer than growth in speed. Starch (42:15) 
reports comprehension scores in terms of the number of words 
written: 





Grade 




I 


II 


m 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Words written 


15 


20 


24 


28 


33 


38 


45 


5° 





The figures reveal the fact that the progress is steady throughout 
the grades, the steps of increase averaging slightly more in the 
upper grades than in the lower. 

Comparison of comprehension during oral and silent reading. — 
Mead (27:34) found that reproductions were slightly superior in 
all sixth-grade classes tested when the reading was done silently. 
Pintner (32:336) reported that fourth-grade children reproduced 
34 per cent of the points when reading orally and reproduced 40 
per cent of the points when reading silently. The advantage 
seems to lie on the side of silent reading. When we take into 
consideration the greater amount of subject-matter read per 
unit of time silently, the argument is decidedly in favor of silent 
reading. 



26 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

DESCRIPTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF READING INVESTIGATIONS 

The following bibliography contains practically all the class- 
room investigations which have been published. Such laboratory 
investigations are included as might prove most suggestive to 
anyone who wishes to pursue this work further: 

i. Abell, Adelaide M. "Rapid Reading; Advantages and Methods," Edu- 
cational Review, VIII (October, 1894), 283-86. 

Reports the results of an investigation with 41 Wellesley students to 
determine the relation of the rate of silent reading and the comprehension 
of subject-matter. Points out important characteristics of slow and 
rapid readers. 

2. Beer, Max. "Die Abhangigkeit der Lesezeit von psychologischen und 
sprachlichen Faktoren," Z.f. Psychologie, LVI (1910), 264-303. 

Reports the results of an investigation to determine the influence of 
length of words upon rate of reading. 

3. Boggs, Lucinda Pearl. "How Children Learn to Read: An Experimental 
Study," Pedagogical Seminary, XII (December, 1905), 496-502. 

Reports the results of an investigation with four boys under school age 
to determine relative efficiency of teaching oral reading by the alpha- 
betic, phonetic, word, and sentence methods. 

4. Bowden, Josephine H. "Learning to Read" (Master's thesis, University 
of Chicago, 191 1), Elementary School Teacher, XII (September, 1911), 

21-33- 

Reports the results of an investigation to determine how children 
recognize words. Two experiments are reported: first, an individual 
study, and, second, a class study. 

5. Brown, H. A. "The Measurement of the Efficiency of Instruction in 
Reading," Elementary School Teacher, XIV (June, 1914), 477-90. 

Reports the results of an investigation with "a little over four hundred" 
third- and sixth-grade pupils in seven school systems to determine the 
rate of silent reading and the quantity and quality of reproduction. Dis- 
cusses at length the relation of the measurement of reading ability to 
reconstruction of methods of teaching reading. 

6. Brown, H. A. The Measurement of Ability to Read, Bulletin No. 1, New 
Hampshire Department of Public Instruction, Concord, New Hampshire. 

A manual of directions for giving and scoring reading tests and diag- 
nosing class and individual needs. 

7. Courtis, S. A. "Standard Tests in English," Elementary School Teacher, 
XIV (April, 1914), 374-92. 

Reports the results of an investigation with pupils chosen from grades 
above the third, from the high school, and from adults, to determine rates 
of reading and ability to comprehend what was read. Describes and dis- 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 27 

cusses each of the six tests included in what the author calls "English 
Tests." 

8. Courtis, S. A. "Standards in Rates of Reading," Fourteenth Yearbook of 
the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (1915), pp. 44-58. 

Reports the results and conclusions reached in a first attempt to deter- 
mine standard scores in some of the measurable elements that make up 
skill in reading. Standards of achievement are reported for pupils in 
Grades IV- VIII, for high-school pupils, and for adults. 

9. Dearborn, W. F. Psychology of Reading (1906), p. 98. 

In checking up Messmer's experiments concerning the influence of 
length of words on reading rate Dearborn concluded: "It is not the short 
words as such, but the words which cannot be easily grouped with others 
which necessitate separate fixations." Pp. 116-22: Reports the results 
of an investigation to determine the influence of subject-matter, type, and 
eye movements upon the rate of reading. 

10. Dearborn, W. F. The Psychology of Reading, Columbia University Con- 
tributions to Philosophy and Psychology, Vol. XIV, No. 1 (1906). 

11. Department of Education, the city of New York. Teachers Yearbook of 
Educational Investigations, No. 6 (191 5), pp. 43-45. 

Reports the tests which have been devised for measuring the efficiency 
of instruction in reading. The work of Brown, Judd, Thorndike, and 
Gray are mentioned. 

12. Gill, E. J. "Methods of Teaching Reading," Journal of Experimental 
Pedagogy, I (March, 191 2), 243-48. 

Reports results of investigation with young pupils to determine whether 
the phonic or sentence method of teaching reading accomplishes the best 
results. 

13. Gilliland, A. R. "A Comparative Study of Oral and Silent Reading" 
(Master's thesis, University of Ohio, 191 5). Also Journal of Educational 
Psychology, VII (April, 1916), 201-12. 

Reports the results of an investigation with 120 subjects chosen from 
the grades above the second, from the high school, and from the University 
of Ohio to determine the relative rates of oral and silent reading of children 
and adults at different stages of development, and to determine relative 
value of oral and silent reading in securing thought. 

14. Gray, C. T. "The Relation of Breathing to Oral Reading," Journal of 
Educational Psychology, IV (January, 1913), 39-41. 

Reports the results of laboratory investigations with 50 grade pupils 
and adults to determine the relation of breathing to oral reading. 

15. Gray, William S. "A Tentative Scale for the Measurement of Oral Reading 
Achievement" (Master's thesis, Columbia University, June, 1914). 

Reports methods and results of testing oral-reading achievement of 
grade pupils by means of a series of standardized paragraphs arranged 
in the order of increasing difficulty. 



28 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

16. Gray, William S. "Methods of Testing Reading, I," Elementary School 
Journal, XVI (January, 1916). 

Describes certain rough tests of oral and silent reading which can be 
readily given by any teacher in connection with the regular work of the 
classroom. 

17. Gray, William S. "Methods of Testing Reading, II," Elementary School 
Journal, XVI (February, 1916), 281-98. 

Describes standard tests in oral and silent reading which were used in 
connection with the surveys in Cleveland and Grand Rapids. 

18. Hendricks, Eldo L. A Study in Reading (Silver, Burdett & Co., 191 1). 

Reports the results of an investigation to determine for pupils of 
Grades I A, IV A, and VIII the rate of ordinary silent reading, very rapid 
silent reading, and ordinary oral reading, and the percentage of thought 
reproduced in each case. Additional problems concerning the characteris- 
tics of ordinary silent reading are discussed. 

19. Huey, E. B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading (1908), pp. 174-75. 

Reports the results of an investigation with 20 graduate students to 
determine rate of reading. Ordinary and maximum rates of oral and 
silent reading are reported. The influence of lip movements and habits 
of eye movements are discussed. 

20. Jones, R. G. "Standard Vocabulary," Fourteenth Yearbook of the National 
Society for the Study of Education, Part I (1915), pp. 37-43. 

Reports the results of tests given to two first-grade classes to determine 
the ability of pupils to pronounce simple words at sight. The method of 
devising a vocabulary test is described in some detail. 

21. Jones, R. G. Standards in Mechanics of Elementary Reading (Bulletin, 
Rockford Printing Co., Rockford, Illinois, 1915). 

Describes tests which will aid in discovering a pupil's command of the 
vocabulary common to first-, second-, and third-grade readers. 

22. Judd, Charles H. "Reading Tests," Elementary School Teacher, XIV 
(April, 1914), 365-73. 

Attention is called to two fundamental types of reading — oral and 
silent. The value of comparisons between groups undertaking similar 
work is emphasized. Practical suggestions are given concerning the selec- 
tion of material for reading tests and concerning the administration of tests. 

23. Judd, Charles H. Measuring the Work of the Public Schools (The Survey 
Committee of the Cleveland Foundation, 1916), pp. 124-61. 

Reports the results of the investigations of reading carried on in con- 
nection with the Cleveland Survey. 

24. Judd, Charles H. "Reading," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society 
for the Study of Education, Part I (1916), pp. 111-19. 

Reports certain results secured in connection with the Cleveland Survey. 
The rates of oral reading and silent reading are compared, and the relation 
between speed and quality of silent reading is discussed. 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 29 

25. Kelly, J. F. "The Kansas Silent Reading Tests," Journal of Educational 
Psychology, VII (February, 1916), 63-80. 

Describes the organization, derivation, and use of a series of tests to 
measure the pupil's comprehension of what is read. 

26. Kelly, J. F. The Kansas Silent Reading Tests, Studies by the Bureau of 
Educational Measurements and Standards, No. 3 (Kansas State Normal 
School, Emporia). 

27. Mead, Cyrus D. " Silent Reading versus Oral Reading with One Hundred 
Sixth Grade Pupils," Journal of Educational Psychology, VI (June, 1915), 
345-48. 

Reports the results of an investigation to determine the relative value 
of oral reading and silent reading as means of securing thought from the 
printed page. 

28. Oberholtzer, E. E. "Testing the Efficiency in Reading in the Grades/ 
Elementary School Journal, XV (February, 1915), 313-22. 

Reports the results of an investigation with 1,800 pupils in Grades 
I-VIII to determine the speed of oral and of silent reading. 

29. Oberholtzer, E.°E. "Testing the Efficiency in Reading in the Grades" 
(Master's thesis, University of Chicago, August, 1915). 

Reports the results of an investigation with 1,800 pupils in Grades 
I-VIII in Tulsa, Oklahoma, to determine (a) rate of oral reading and of 
silent reading; (b) rate of reading in successive grades; (c) factors of greatest 
influence in affecting rate; (d) relation of speed and comprehension. 

30. Oberholtzer, E. E. "The Effects of Efficiency Tests in Reading on a City 
School System," Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of 
Education, Part I (1 914), pp. 138-40. 

Summarizes briefly the values which resulted from giving tests of 
reading in his school system. 

31. Packer, P. C, and Anderson, H. W. "The Loss in Reading Ability during 
the Summer Vacation," Midland Schools, XXX (November, 1915), 81-82. 

Reports the results of an investigation with 566 pupils in Grades I-V 
in Iowa City public schools to determine the effect of the summer vacation 
upon the rate of oral reading. 

32. Pintner, Rudolph. "Oral and Silent Reading of Fourth Grade Children," 
Journal of Educational Psychology, IV (June, 1913), 333-37. 

Reports results of investigation with twenty-three fourth-grade pupils 
to determine whether the percentage of subject-matter retained or com- 
prehended is increased or decreased by the supposed help of oral 
reading. 

33. Pintner, Rudolph. "Inner Speech," Psychological Review, XX, 129-53. 

Reports results of experiments to determine whether articulation could 
be eliminated during silent reading, and if so whether by practice the 
ordinary rate of reading and the average degree of comprehension could be 
increased. 



30 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

34. Quantz, J. A. "Problems in the Psychology of Reading," Psychological 
Review, Monograph Supplement, Vol. II, No. 1 (1897), pp. 1-51. 

Reports the results of an investigation with 50 Juniors and Seniors of 
the University of Wisconsin to determine the normal and maximum rates 
of oral and silent reading, and to determine some of the factors and condi- 
tions upon which rate of reading depends. 

35. Romanes, G. J. Mental Evolution in Animals (1884), pp. 136-37. 

Reports the results of an investigation with "practiced readers" to 
determine the speed of silent reading and the factors conditioning it. 
Gives certain conclusions concerning the rate of reading and the power 
of assimilation. 

36. Rubins, R. B. "Tests of the Seven Year School" (Master's thesis, Uni- 
versity of Chicago, September, 1915), pp. 32-37. 

Reports the results of Gray's reading tests given to 232 grade pupils 
in Bristol, Tennessee. Steady progress beyond the third grade is reported. 

37. Ruediger, W. E. Field of Distinct Vision, Columbia Contributions to 
Philosophy and Psychology, Vol. XVII, No. 1 (1907). 

In connection with laboratory experiments upon the field of distinct 
vision Ruediger reports results concerning the correlation between the 
horizontal extent of acute vision and reading rate. Emphasizes the 
importance of power to assimilate. 

38. Salt Lake City Survey. The Test in Reading (June, 1915), pp. 154-65. 

Reports the results of Courtis reading tests given to 1,624 pupils of 
Salt Lake City. Achievement in speed of reading, comprehension of subject- 
matter, and the correlation between speed and memory tests are given. 

39. Schmitt, Clara. "School Subjects as Materials for Tests of Mental 
Ability," Elementary School Journal, XV (November, 1914), 150-61. 

Reports results of tests given to pupils of Grades I-V and to a group 
of defective children to determine the relative achievement of each group 
as to speed and errors in oral reading, together with the ability to reproduce 
and to interpret the subject-matter read. 

40. Sholty, Myrtle. "A Study of the Reading Vocabulary of Children," 
Elementary School Teacher, XII (February, 1912), 272-77. 

Reports results of investigation to determine the reading vocabulary of 
second-grade pupils. Five points were reported: total number of words 
in reading vocabulary; number of words known in context; number known 
out of context when seen on instant; number pupils could build up when 
allowed to see words for some time; number pupils could neither recognize 
on instant nor build up when given time. 

41. Starch, Daniel. The Measurement of Efficiency in Reading, Writing, Spell- 
ing, and English" (College Book Store, Madison, Wisconsin, 1914). 

Presents the subject-matter for silent-reading tests for each grade, gives 
instructions for administering and scoring the tests, and presents standards 
of achievement for each grade 



SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS 31 

42. Starch, Daniel. "The Measurement of Efficiency in Reading," Journal 
of Educational Psychology, VI (January, 1915), 1-24. 

Reports the results of tests given to 3,511 pupils in fifteen schools of 
Wisconsin, Minnesota, and New York to determine speed of silent reading 
and comprehension of subject-matter. 

43. Thorndike, E. L. "The Measurement of Ability to Read," Teachers Col- 
lege Record, XV (September, 19 14), 207-27. 

Presents preliminary scales and tests for the measurement of achieve- 
ment in reading along the following lines: (1) a pupil's ability to under- 
stand the meaning of words and sentences seen so far as concerns (a) the 
understanding of words singly, and (b) the understanding of sentences and 
paragraphs; (2) a pupil's ability to pronounce words and sentences seen 
in a series of paragraphs arranged in the order of increasing difficulty. 

44. Thorndike, E. L. "An Improved Scale for Measuring Ability in Read- 
ing," Teachers College Record, XVI (November, 1915), 445-67; concluded 
XVII (January, 19 16), 40-67. 

Describes the derivation and use of an improved and extended form 
of the Alpha Reading Scale described in the Teachers College Record for 
September, 1914. 

45. Turner, Edwin A. " Standards Employed in the Determination of Teach- 
ing Efficiency," Normal School Quarterly, Illinois State Normal University, 
January, 1916, pp. 26-29. 

Reports the tests which have been devised for measuring the efficiency 
of instruction in reading. The studies of Thorndike, Kelly, and Gray are 
mentioned. 

46. Valentine, C. W. "Experiments on Methods of Teaching Reading," 
Journal of Experimental Pedagogy and Training College Record, II (1913), 
99-112. Reviewed by E. H. Cameron, Psychological Bulletin, XI, 329. 

Reports the result of an investigation of the comparative merits of the 
word and phonic methods of teaching reading. 

47. Waldo, Karl D. "Tests in Reading in Sycamore Schools" (Master's thesis, 
University of Chicago, July, 1914). 

Reports results of an investigation in Grades III-VIII in the public 
schools of Sycamore, Illinois, to determine the growth in speed and com- 
prehension of silent reading during a period of six months. 

48. Waldo, Karl D. "Tests in Reading in Sycamore Schools," Elementary 
School Journal, XV (January, 1915), 251-68. 

Gives a summary of results presented in a Master's thesis, University 
of Chicago, 1914, showing the growth made by various grades in speed of 
silent reading and comprehension of subject-matter during a period of six 
months. 



CHAPTER III 
DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 

Tests of oral reading and of silent reading were organized and 
standardized for use in the investigations which are reported in 
chaps, vi and vii. The technical details connected with the deriva- 
tion and standardization of these tests will be discussed in chaps, 
iv and v. It is the purpose of this chapter to describe only the 
general features of the tests, to outline the methods of giving them, 
and to describe how the results are scored. 

THE STANDARD ORAL-READING TEST 

The oral-reading test which was used in the investigations 
reported in this monograph consisted of a series of twelve passages 
arranged in the order of increasing difficulty. The passages of the 
test are shown on p. 33 

Conditions under which the tests should be given. — The value of the 
results secured through the use of tests depends largely upon the 
conditions under which they are given. In view of this fact those 
who gave the tests were instructed to observe carefully the following 
points : 

a) The tests should be given in a well-lighted room, preferably 
in an office or alcove, or in a room which is free from noises and 
interruptions. 

b) The presence of visitors while the tests are being given is 
undesirable. Experience has shown that the pupil is disturbed very 
little by the presence of the experimenter, but that the presence of 
a third person is distracting. If anyone asks to observe the testing, 
it is well to refuse the request politely but firmly. 

c) The attitude of the experimenter toward the pupil is a very 
important factor. Greet the pupil with a casual remark of some 
kind, thus putting him at his ease. During the progress of the 
test do not say or do anything which would encourage or discourage 

32 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 



33 



A boy had a dog. 

The dog ran into the woods. 

The boy ran after the dog. 

He wanted the dog to go home. 

But the dog would not go home. 

The little boy said, 

"I cannot go home without my dog. " 
Then the boy began to cry. 



Once there were a cat and a mouse. 
They lived in the same house. The cat 
bit off the mouse's tail. "Pray, puss," 
said the mouse, "give me my long tail 
again." 

"No," said the cat, "I will not give 
you your tail till you bring me some 
milk." 

3 
Once there lived a king and queen in a large 
palace. But the femg and queen were not happy. 
There were no little children in the house or gar- 
den. One day they found a poor little boy and 
girl at their door. They took them into the palace 
and made them their own. The king and queen 
were then happy. 



Once I went home from the city for a sum- 
mer's rest. I took my gun for a stroll in the 
woods where I had shot many squirrels. I put my 
gun against a tree and lay down upon the leaves. 
Soon I was fast asleep dreaming of a group of 
merry, laughing children running and playing 
about me on all sides. 



One of the most interesting birds which ever 
lived in my bird-room was a blue jay named 
Jakie. He was full of business from morning till 
night, scarcely ever still. He had been stolen 
from a nest long before he could fly, and he had 
been reared in a house long before he had been 
given to me as a pet. 



The part of farming enjoyed most by a boy 
is the making of maple sugar. It is better than 
blackberrying and almost as good as fishing. 
One reason why a boy likes this work is that some- 
one else does most of it. It is a sort of work 
in which he can appear to be very industrious and 
yet do but little. 

7 

It was one of those wonderful evenings such 
as are found only in this magnificent region. The 
sun had sunk behind the mountains, but it was 
still light. The pretty twilight glow embraced 
a third of the sky, and against its brilliancy stood 
the dull white masses of the mountains in evident 
contrast. 

8 

The crown and glory of a useful life is charac- 
ter. It is the noblest possession of man. It con- 
stitutes a rank in itself, an estate in the general 
good will, dignifying every station and exalting 
every position in society. It exercises a greater 
power than wealth, and is a valuable means of 
securing honor. 

9 

He was six feet tall and his body was well 
proportioned. His complexion inclined to the 
florid ; his eyes were blue and remarkably far apart. 
A profusion of hair covered the forehead. He 
was scrupulously neat in his appearance; and, 
although he habitually left his tent early, he was 
well dressed. 

10 

Responding to the impulse of habit, Josephus 
spoke as of old. The others listened attentively 
but in grim and contemptuous silence. He spoke 
at length, continuously, persistently, and ingra- 
tiatingly. Finally exhausted through loss of 
strength he hesitated. As always happens in 
such exigencies, he was lost. 

11 

The attractions of the American prairies as 
well as of the alluvial deposits of Egypt have 
been overcome by the azure skies of Italy and the 
antiquities of Roman architecture. My delight 
in the antique and my fondness for architectural 
and archaeological studies verges onto a fanati- 
cism. 

12 

The hypotheses concerning physical phenom- 
ena formulated by the early philosophers proved 
to be inconsistent and in general not universally 
applicable. Before relatively accurate principles 
could be established, physicists, mathematicians, 
and statisticians had to combine forces and work 
arduously. 



34 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

the pupil. Give him no hint concerning his progress until the test 
has been completed. 

d) Arrangements should be made with the grade teacher to 
have the pupils sent to the experimenter. In the first three grades 
the following plan should be used : At the outset two pupils should 
be sent to the room in which the tests are being given. While the 
first pupil is being tested, the second pupil should remain at the 
door outside the room. When the first test has been completed, 
the pupil should be dismissed and the second pupil should enter for 
his test. As soon as the first pupil reaches the classroom, a third 
pupil should be sent to the door of the testroom. In this way the 
experimenter always has a pupil at hand to be tested as soon as a 
subject is dismissed. In the grades above the third two pupils 
should be sent at first and one thereafter at the end of each five 
minutes. Slight readjustments may be necessary in regard to the 
time schedule, since some experimenters learn to test more rapidly 
than others. 

Directions for giving the oral-reading tests. — i. The purpose of 
this test is to determine the rate of oral reading and the ability of 
pupils to pronounce words and sentences at sight. 

2. When everything is in readiness to begin, hand the pupil a 
copy of the paragraphs and give the following directions: "I should 
like to have you read some of these paragraphs for me. Begin with 
the first paragraph when I say 'Begin.' Stop at the end of each 
paragraph until I say 'Next.' If you should find some hard words, 
read them as best you can without help and continue reading." In 
case a pupil in one of the first two grades hesitates several seconds 
on a difficult word, pronounce it for the pupil so that he may con- 
tinue reading. Mark the word as mispronounced. 

3. While the pupil is reading, record two sets of facts in regard 
to the reading, the time required to read each paragraph and the 
errors made. 

a) The time record is secured by noting the exact second at 
which the pupil begins reading a paragraph and the time when he 
completes it. The number of seconds required to read the para- 
graph should be recorded in the margin to the right of the para- 
graph. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 35 

b) In order to illustrate clearly the character of errors and the 
method of recording them, the following paragraph is inserted: 

The sun pierced into my large windows. It was the opening of October, 
and the^sky was<of)a dazzling blue. I looked out of my window dtnd) down 
the street. The white house|)of the long, slight street were^nost painful 
to the eyes. The clear atmosphere allowed full play to,jhjj sim/sjprightness* 

If a word is wholly mispronounced, underline it, as in the case 
of "atmosphere." If a portion of a word is mispronounced, mark 
appropriately, as indicated above: " pierced" pronounced in two 
syllables, sounding long a in "dazzling," omitting the s in "houses" 
or the al from "almost" or the r in "straight." Omitted words are 
marked as in the case of "of" and "and"; substitutions as in the 
case of "many" for "my"; insertions as in the case of "clear"; 
and repetitions as in the case of "to the sun's." Two or more 
words should be repeated to count as a repetition. 

It is very difficult to record the exact nature of each error. Do 
this as accurately as you can. In all cases where you are unable 
to define clearly the specific character of the error, underline the 
word or portion of the word mispronounced. Be sure that you 
mark each error. In case you are not sure that an error was made, 
give the pupil the benefit of your doubt. If the pupil has a slight 
foreign accent, distinguish carefully between this difficulty and 
real errors. 

4. Each pupil should be allowed to continue reading until he 
makes at least the following number of errors in each of two para- 
graphs: 5 errors or more in 40 or more seconds, or 7 or more errors 
in case the paragraph is read in less than 40 seconds. 

Scope of the oral-reading test. — A question naturally arises at this 
point concerning the scope of the test. To what extent do measures 
of rate and mechanical errors constitute a measure of oral-reading 
ability ? In the first place, the elementary school must of necessity 
place considerable emphasis on the mechanics of reading. To the 
extent, therefore, that the test measures progress along this par- 
ticular line of school endeavor it becomes a useful tool in checking 
achievement in oral reading. 



36 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



In the second place, rate in itself is a very important measure of 
oral-reading ability. When a child first learns to read, he recog- 
nizes words very slowly. As the association between the sight of 
the symbol and its pronunciation becomes more firmly established, 
the pronunciation of the word follows more closely upon its 
sight. This increase in the rate at which pupils recognize words 
continues throughout the grades. The following figures give 
the number of words read per second by large numbers of 
pupils of each grade when reading the third paragraph of the 
reading test: 





Grade 




I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Words per second 


1.36 


2. 21 


2.42 


2.98 


3-39 


3 -54 


3-63 


3-7° 



Furthermore, as the subject-matter to be read increases in 
difficulty, the speed of reading is decreased, although no errors may 
be made. This fact is shown very clearly in the case of pupil No. 1 
in Table VI. Because one's reading rate increases through the 
grades and because one's rate of reading is influenced by the diffi- 
culty of the subject-matter, it is fair to assume that of two readers 
the one who recognizes words the more readily has the greater 
ability in oral reading. 

Moreover, ability to read rapidly is a fair measure of the mastery 
which the reader has of the printed page. It was pointed out in the 
Cleveland monograph, entitled Measuring the Work of the Public 
Schools, that "the poor reader is one who is unable to pass readily 
from the printed symbol to the meaning. For the poor reader the 
mere mechanical processes are obstacles and he loses time in trying 
to perform the preliminary mental acts which are necessary before 
he can comprehend the passage. In the case of the good reader, 
on the other hand, the mechanics of the process are very fluent and 
rapid. The proficient reader has mastered the words and moves 
on without hesitation to the meaning." The error in relying 
entirely on rate as a measure of efficiency in reading was also 
pointed out in the Cleveland monograph. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 



37 



Again, it has been found that the relative rank in a class which 
a pupil holds on the basis of the oral-reading test is very closely 
correlated to the rank given him by his teacher on the basis of 
general reading ability. Table V presents the ranks of the pupils 

TABLE V 

Comparison of Ranks of Pupils in Speyer School 



Pupil 


Rank by Teacher 


Rank by Test 


Pupil 


Rank by Teacher 


Rank by Test 


Wilda 

Ogden 

Cornelia 

Jack 

Athea 

Marion 

Rosa 

Jessie 

Parker 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 


I 

2 

3 

4 

IO 

ii 

5 
6 

7 


Grace 

Donald .... 
Margaret . . . 

Hugh 

Rupert 

Muriel 

EUy 

Reginald. . . 
Lilian 


IO 

II 

12 
13 
14 
IS 
16 

17 
18 


8 

9 
12 

14 
13 
IS 
16 

17 
18 



of the sixth grade of the Speyer School, New York City, given in 19 14 
by the teachers of that school on the basis of general reading ability, 
and the ranks given to the same pupils on the basis of the oral- 
reading test. As revealed by the table, the correlation between 
achievement as measured by the test and achievement as measured 
in the classroom is very high indeed. Similar comparisons have 
been made in several grades of the Elementary School of the Uni- 
versity of Chicago with corresponding results. 

The writer, while giving more than two thousand oral-reading 
tests personally, observed that pupils who ranked high in the oral- 
reading test usually gave much better expression to their reading 
than those who ranked low. C. T. Gray, who worked on reading 
during 19 15-16 in the laboratory of the School of Education of the 
University of Chicago, experimented with a number of pupils who 
had taken the oral-reading test. Those pupils who were sent to 
him with a low rank according to the test usually received a much 
lower grade on expression than did those who received a high rank. 

A specific test for expression was not included in this study for 
the following reasons: The writer worked for months trying to 
devise some simple standards by which to judge the quality of 
expression. No test devised would be accepted as a whole by a 



38 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



single teacher called into conference. It therefore seemed futile, at 
the present stage of development of scientific measuring, to include 
such a test in this investigation. 

Method of tabulating data. — For the purpose of computing indi- 
vidual and class scores it is desirable to tabulate the records of the 
pupils in as convenient a form as possible. To this end either of the 
following methods may be used: If the investigator is interested in 
the final score only, the total number of errors made in reading a 
given paragraph may be recorded on the test sheet under the num- 
ber expressing the time in seconds required to read that paragraph. 
This may be done at the time the tests are given. The scores can 
then be computed quickly from the original test sheets by the 
method described in later paragraphs of this chapter. If the inves- 
tigator wishes to make a careful study of the causes of high or low 
records or if he desires to make productive comparisons of the 
achievement of individuals, classes, or entire schools, a more 
elaborate method of tabulation is desirable. The following method 
of tabulation which was adopted for use in this investigation was 
found to be effective for the purposes of analysis and comparison: 
The records for each school were entered on a separate sheet. The 

TABLE VI 
Tabulation Sheet foe Individual Records 



Pupils 


Paragraph No. i 


Paragraph No. 2 


Paragraph No. 3 


Paragraph No. 4 


G 


N 


S 


A 


T 


G 


M 





s 


I 


R 


T 


G 


M 





s 


I 


R 


T 


G 


M 





s 


I 


R 


T 


G 


M 





s 


I 


R 


II 
II 
II 
II 
II 
II 
II 


I 
2 

3 

4 
5 
6 

7 


G 

G 
B 
G 
G 
G 
B 


7 
7 

8 

7 
7 
8 

7 


13 
15 

12 
28 

19 

27 
40 


I 




I 


I 


I 
I 


I 
I 

2 


19 

20 
20 

35 

20 

39 
46 




I 
I 

2 


2 


I 
I 

I 

2 




I 
I 
2 

I 


20 
20 
37 
38 
38 
55 


1 
I 


2 




I 
I 
I 
2 

I 




I 
I 
I 
1 


25 
25 
35 
63 
45 
69 


I 
1 
1 
1 


I 
2 


I 


3 

1 
2 


1 
1 


I 
I 

3 

2 



records for each grade were tabulated as a unit in order from the 
first to the eighth. Individual records within a grade were entered 
in the order of achievement from the best to the poorest. The 
time required to read each paragraph and the number of errors of 
each type which were made in reading were recorded. Table VI 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 39 

illustrates the method of tabulation adopted. As presented, it is 
limited on account of space to the first four paragraphs of the oral- 
reading test. 

Description of tabulation sheet for class and individual records. — 
The letters G, N, S, A under " Pupils" refer to grade, to the rank 
of the pupil, to sex, and to age, respectively. The letters T, G, M, 
O, S, I, R under each paragraph refer to the following items : T, to 
time in seconds; G, to gross errors; M, to minor errors; O, to omis- 
sions; S, to substitutions; /, to insertions; and R, to repetitions. 
The record of the first pupil entered in the table reads as follows : 
The pupil was in the second grade, ranked highest in the class, and 
was a girl, seven years old. She read the first four paragraphs of 
the scale in 13, 19, 20, and 25 seconds, respectively, with no errors. 
The record of the last pupil entered reads as follows : This second- 
grade pupil ranked lowest in the class and was a boy seven years 
old. He read paragraph 1 in 40 seconds with one gross error 
and two repetitions. He read paragraph 2 in 46 seconds with 
two minor errors, two omissions, two substitutions, and one 
repetition. The other paragraphs were too difficult for him to 
read effectively. 

Standards for scoring. — The problem of scoring results is much 
more difficult for reading than it is for many other subjects. In 
arithmetic the problem is a relatively easy one because standards 
of perfect accuracy can be adopted as the basis for grading. Such 
a standard in reading would be open to serious objections, since 
many of our most effective readers make some errors. The scoring 
of the record of each individual depends upon the facts that a cer- 
tain number of errors may reasonably be expected for each para- 
graph and that a certain amount of time must be allowed for the 
reading. If the pupil exceeds a given time limit or makes more 
than a given number of errors, the amount of credit which he gets 
for reading the passage should be proportionately reduced. Upon 
the basis of the time required for reading and the number of errors 
made by large numbers of pupils, four standards of varying degrees 
of severity were adopted as the basis for scoring. The validity of 
these standards is discussed on p. 76. They are given below in 
the order of increasing severity. 



4 o STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

A record is checked as a failure if: 

A. It is not read because of previous failure. 

It is read in 40 or more seconds with five or more errors. 
It is read in less than 40 seconds with seven or more errors. 

B. It is not read because of previous failure. 

It is read in 30 or more seconds with four or more errors. 
It is read in less than 30 seconds with five or more errors. 

C. It is not read because of previous failure. 

It is read in 25 or more seconds with three or more errors. 
It is read in less than 25 seconds with four or more errors. 

D. It is not read because of previous failure. 

It is read in 20 or more seconds with two or more errors. 
It is read in less than 20 seconds with three or more errors. 

Individual and class scores. — Individual scores were determined 
by applying each of the four standards to the pupil's record for each 
paragraph. If the paragraph was read successfully under the con- 
ditions of two of the standards, the figure "2" was entered in an 
appropriate column of the score sheet (Table VII) ; if the reading 
met the conditions of one, three, or four of the standards, the appro- 
priate figure was entered on the sheet. As shown in Table VI, 
pupil No. 7 read paragraph 1 in 40 seconds with three errors. It 
is apparent that this paragraph was read successfully according to 
the conditions of Standards A and B. The record does not meet 
the conditions of Standard C because more than 25 seconds 
were required to read it and there was a total of three errors. 
Since the reading was a failure according to Standard C, it was 
also a failure according to Standard D, which is more diffi- 
cult. The paragraph was therefore read successfully under two 
standards. 

Paragraph 2 was read in 46 seconds with seven errors. An 
application of Standard A shows that the reading was a failure 
according to the conditions of the most liberal standard, and 
hence a failure under the conditions of each of the more diffi- 
cult standards. The paragraph was therefore read successfully 
under none of the standards. In case a paragraph was not read 
successfully by any of the standards, no entry was made in 
the table. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 



41 



In order to secure speed and accuracy in scoring the results, the 
four standards mentioned above were summarized in the form of 
the following table: 



Seconds 



Errors 



7 or 

More 



40 or more 

3o-39 

25-29 

20-24 

19 or less . . 



The numbers in the horizontal line at the top of the table refer 
to the number of errors made. The numbers in the left-hand 
column of the table refer to the number of seconds required to read 
a paragraph. The entries in the table refer to the number of 
standards under which a paragraph is read successfully. The table 
reads as follows : If a paragraph is read in 40 or more seconds with 
one error, it is read successfully according to four standards; if 
two errors are made, it is read successfully according to three 
standards, etc. With the aid of this table it is possible to score 
individual records with great rapidity. 



DESCRIPTION OF SCORE SHEET FOR INDIVIDUALS AND CLASSES 

The letters G, N, S, A under "Pupils" in Table VII refer to the 
grade, to the rank of the pupil, to sex, and to age, respectively. 
The numerals under "Paragraph," refer to the paragraphs of the 
scale in order. The entries in the table refer to the number of 
standards under which each paragraph was read successfully. The 
table reads : The first pupil entered in the table was a second-grade 
pupil, ranked highest in the class, and was a girl, seven years old. 
She read paragraphs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 successfully by all four 
standards, paragraph 7 by one standard, and the remaining 
paragraphs by none of the standards. The total class score and 
the average class score for each paragraph are presented at the foot 
of the table. The total class score was determined by finding the 
sum of the scores for each paragraph separately. These sums were 



42 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



then entered on the score sheet at the foot of the appropriate 
columns. Since the highest possible number of successes per para- 
graph is four times the number of pupils tested, the average score 
by paragraphs was found by dividing each item of the total score 

by four. 

TABLE VII 

Score Sheet for Individuals and Classes 



Pupils 


Paragraphs 


G 


N 


S 


A 


i 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


IO 


II 


12 


II.... 


I 

2 

3 
4 
S 
6 

7 


G 
G 
B 
G 
G 
G 
B 


7 
7 
8 

7 
7 
8 

7 


4 
4 
4 

2 

4 
4 

2 


4 
4 
3 
4 
3 

2 


4 
4 

2 

3 

i 
i 


4 
4 

i 


4 

2 
2 


4 

2 


I 
I 












II.... 












II.... 












II.... 
















II.... 




















II.... 




















II.... 












































Total class s 
Average clap 


core. . 




24 
6 


20 
5 


IS 
3-7 


9 

2. 2 


8 
2 


6 
i-5 


2 












s scon 





























Upon the basis of the type of scoring just outlined the steps 
of difference in difficulty between the paragraphs and the shifts in 
difficulty from grade to grade have been determined from data for 
3,299 pupils and are represented in Table VIII. The derivation 



TABLE VIII 
A Measure for Oral Reading 



Grade 


s 


10 


IS 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


5° 


55 


60 


65 


70 


75 


80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


I.... 






















I 

s 

6 

7 
8 

10 


6 

7 
8 

10 

11 


2 

7 
8 

10 

11 
12 


3 
8 

10 

11 
12 


5 
10 

11 
12 


6 
10 

11 
12 


7 








II. .. 














I 
2 

3 
5 
6 

7 


2 
3 
5 
6 

7 
8 


2 

3 

5 
6 

7 
8 


3 
S 
6 

7 
8 

10 








III. . 












1 

2 
3 
5 
6 


11 

12 


12 






IV... 










I 

2 

3 
5 






V 








I 
2 

3 








VT 






I 

2 










VTT 


I 


I 












VTTT 































and validity of Table VIII, together with the reasons for the omission 
of paragraph 4 and paragraph 9 from the table, are discussed in 
chap. iv. 

The horizontal line of numbers at the top of the table marks off 
twenty equal steps between o and 100. These numbers may be 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 43 

interpreted as indicating either the relative difficulty of the para- 
graphs or the amount of credit which should be given for the suc- 
cessful reading of the various paragraphs. The Roman numerals 
to the left of the table refer to the eight grades of the elementary 
school. The entries in the table refer to the respective paragraphs 
of the test. The table reads as follows : In the first grade a pupil 
who reads paragraph 1 successfully should receive a credit of 55 
points; for reading paragraph 2 successfully he should receive 10 
additional points, or a total of 65 points; for reading paragraph 3 
successfully he should receive 5 additional points, or a total of 70 
points, etc. The successful reading of paragraph 1 does not repre- 
sent so great an achievement in the second grade as in the first 
grade. According to the table, a second-grade pupil receives a 
credit of 35 points for reading paragraph 1 successfully. Ten addi- 
tional points, or a total of 45 points, are given for reading para- 
graph 2 successfully. Five additional points, or a total of 50 points, 
are given for reading paragraph 3 successfully, etc. 

The numerical value of the achievement of a given class was de- 
termined according to the following method : The average class score 
for each paragraph was first found as indicated on p. 42. The aver- 
age class scores for the second-grade class mentioned in Table VII 
were as follows : an average of six successful readings of paragraph 
1 ; 5 successful readings of paragraph 2; 3 . 75 successful readings of 
paragraph 3; 2.25 successful readings of paragraph 4; 2 successful 
readings of paragraph 5 ; 1.5 successful readings of paragraph 6 ; 
o . 5 successful reading of paragraph 7. According to Table VIII, 35 
points of credit should be given for each successful reading of para- 
graph 1 ; six successful readings amount to a total value of 210. To 
this should be added 10 additional points for each of 5 successful 
readings of paragraph 2 ; 5 additional points for each of 3 . 75 success- 
ful readings of paragraph 3; 5 additional points for each of 2.25 
successful readings of paragraph 4; 5 additional points for each of 
2 successful readings of paragraph 5 ; 5 additional points for each of 
1 . 5 successful readings of paragraph 6 ; and 2 . 5 additional points for 
0.5 successful reading of paragraph 7. The total value is the sum 
of 210, 50, 18.75, 11.25, 10, 7.5, 2. 5, or 3 10. Since there were seven 
members in this class, the average score for the class was one-seventh 



44 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



of 310, or 44+. The foregoing description of the method of find- 
ing the numerical score for a class has been reduced, with slight 
modifications, to the series of specific directions which follow: 

a) Find the sum of the scores for each paragraph separately, and enter 
each total score at the foot of the appropriate column on the score sheet. 

b) Enter the total score for each paragraph in the column under "Score," 
in the following table: 



Paragraph 


Score X Value 


Product 




I 








2 


10 




7, 


5 


VALUE FOR PARAGRAPH I 


5 


5 


Grade 1 55 


6 


5 


II 35 


7 


5 


HI 3° 


8 


5 


IV 25 


10 


10 


V 20 


11 


10 


VI i S 


12 


5 


VII 10 






VIII 5 


Total prodi 


ict 








Average class score 







c) The value or credit given for the successful reading of paragraph 1 
varies with the grade. These values are given in the column to the right of 
the table. Enter the appropriate value for paragraph 1 in the blank space 
in the column under "Value." Thus, the appropriate value for paragraph 1, 
for the third grade, is 30. The values for all other paragraphs remain the 
same for all grades. 

d) Multiply the score for each paragraph by its value and enter the result 
in the column under "Product." 

e) Find the sum of the products and divide by 4 times the number of 
pupils in the class. The result is the average class score. 

Graphical representation of oral-reading scores.' — As was stated 
in preceding paragraphs, the ability to read a certain passage with- 
out error means less on the part of a pupil in the upper grades than 
on the part of a pupil in the lower grades. Hence grades are to be 
compared with each other by the recognition of different levels of 
achievement. These different levels, as determined from a large 
number of records, can be expressed graphically as indicated by 
the vertical lines in Diagram I. Each line represents the scale for 
a grade and begins below at the point where the score of 10 should 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 



45 



be represented. Higher scores can be represented by appropriate 
distances along the vertical line above 10. In the diagram the 
lines end at the points where the score of 70 belongs for each grade. 
The dotted oblique lines above and below, connecting the successive 
yo's and io's respectively, indicate the curves of progress which 




Diagram I. — Progress of 2,193 pupils in oral reading 



would result if, in the one case, all scores were 10, or if, in the other 
case, all scores were 70. The solid line near the middle of the 
figure represents the record of 2,193 pupils. This average record 
constitutes a standard with which individual schools may be com- 
pared. The numerical value of the record for each grade as repre- 
sented in the diagram is as follows : First grade, 3 1 ; second grade, 



46 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



School- 
Pupil- 



Standardized Reading Paragraphs 

William S. Gray 



. Tenrhfi r 

.Nationality. 



.Grade. 
.Age — 



A boy had a dog. 

The dog ran into the woods. 

The boy ran after the dog. 

He wanted the dog to go home. 

But the dog would not go home. 

The little boy said, 

"I cannot go home without my dog." 
Then the boy began to cry. 



Once there was a little pig. 

He lived with his mother in a pen. 

One day he saw his four feet. 

"Mother," he said, "what can I do 
with my feet?" 

His mother said, "You can run with 
them." 

So the little pig ran round and round 
the pen. 



Once there were a cat and a mouse. 
They lived in the same house. The cat 
bit off the mouse's tail. "Pray, puss," 
said the mouse, "give me my long tail 
again." 

"No" said the cat, "I will not give 
you your tail till you bring me some 
milk." 



Once there lived a king and queen in a large 
' palace. But the king and queen were not happy. 
There were no little children in the house or gar- 
den. One day they found a poor little boy and 
gid at their door. They took them into the 
beautiful palace and made them their own. The 
kiDg and queen were then happy. 



One of the most interesting birds which ever 
lived in my bird-room was a blue-jay named 
Jackie. He was full of business from morning 
till night, scarcely ever still. He had been stolen 
from a nest long before he could fly, and he had 
been reared in a house long before he had been 
given to me as a pet. 



The part of farming enjoyed most by a boy 
is the making of maple sugar. It is better than 
blackberrying and almost as good as fishing. 
One reason why a boy likes this work is that 
someone else does most of it. It is a sort of work 
in which he can appear to be very industrious and 
yet do but little. 

7 

It was one of those wonderful evenings such 
as are found only in this magnificent region. The 
sun had sunk behind the mountains, but it was 
still light. The pretty twilight glow embraced 
a third of the sky, and against its brilliancy stood 
the dull white masses of the mountains in evident 
contrast. 

8 

The crown and glory of a useful life is char- 
acter. It is the noblest possession of man. It 
forms a rank in itself, an estate in the general 
good will, dignifying every station and exalting 
every position in society. It exercises a greater 
power than wealth, and is a valuable means of 
securing honor. 

9 

He was approximately six feet tall and his 
body was well proportioned. His complexion 
inclined to the florid; his eyes were blue and re- 
markably far apart. A profusion of hair covered 
the forehead. He was scrupulously neat in his 
appearance ; and, although he habitually left his 
tent early, he was well dressed. 
10 

Responding to the impulse of habit Josephus 
spoke as of old. The others listened attentively 
but in grim and contemptuous silence. He spoke 
at length, continuously, persistently, and ingra- 
tiatingly. Finally exhausted through loss of 
strength he hesitated. As always happens in 
such exigencies he was lost. 

11 

The attractions of the American prairies as 
well as of the alluvial deposits of Egypt have 
been overcome by the azure skies of Italy and the 
antiquities of Roman architecture. My delight 
in the antique and my fondness for architectural 
and archaeological studies verges onto a fanati- 
cism. 

12 

The hypotheses concerning physical phenom- 
ena formulated by the early philosophers proved 
to be inconsistent and in general not universally 
applicable. Before relatively accurate principles 
could be established, physicists, mathematicians, 
and statisticians had to combine forces and work 
arduously. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 



47 



42; third grade, 46; fourth grade, 47; fifth grade, 48; sixth 
grade, 49; seventh grade, 47; eighth grade, 48. 

Standardized reading paragraphs. — The oral-reading test as given 
on p. 33 was used in the investigations which are reported in chaps, 
vi and vii. During the progress of these investigations it was 
found that several changes were desirable in connection with cer- 
tain paragraphs. These modifications are described at the end 
of chap, iv, and they have been incorporated in the test as it 
appears on p. 46. The revised form of the oral-reading test is 
the one which was used in connection with the Grand Rapids 
Survey. Arrangements are now being made to use it in the 
St. Louis Survey, in a survey of eleven cities of northern Illinois,, 
and in connection with studies of reading in numerous cities 
throughout the country. 

The average oral-reading scores for 4,066 pupils of Grand 
Rapids are given below: 





Average Oral-Reading Scores 












Date 


Grades 




I 


n 


in 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


vm 


Grand Rapids 


March 1916 


35 


44 


47 


49 


So 


47 


48 


48 



THE STANDARD SILENT-READING TESTS 

The subject-matter of the silent-reading tests consists of three 
selections entitled "Tiny Tad," "The Grasshoppers," and "Ancient 
Ships." These selections were adapted respectively to the interests 
and reading capacity of second- and third-grade pupils, fourth-, 
fifth-, and sixth-grade pupils, and seventh- and eighth-grade pupils. 
The phases of reading ability which are tested by these selections 
are rate of silent reading, ability to reproduce the subject-matter 
read, and ability to answer specific questions concerning what was 
read. 

That speed is an important element in silent reading cannot be 
questioned. Of two pupils, all other things being equal, that pupil 



48 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

who reads at the rate of ioo words per minute will achieve only 
one-half as much in a given unit of time as one who reads at the 
rate of 200 words per minute. As the diagram on p. 136 shows, 
the rapid reader usually secures a larger number of ideas from what 
he reads than does the slow reader. For these reasons it is evident 
that the facts concerning the rate of silent reading are of the greatest 
importance to supervisors and teachers. 

It will be pointed out on p. 105 that when a person tries to 
understand what he reads, a number of complex processes are 
involved, and that meaning or comprehension may take various 
forms. In the present investigation it was impossible to test com- 
prehension of what was read in all its forms. Practical considera- 
tions demanded that comprehension be measured along one or two 
representative lines. It was decided, therefore, to measure the 
ability of pupils to reproduce what was read, and to measure ability 
to answer questions concerning specific points. These two measures 
were selected because comprehension is tested very largely in the 
classroom by one or both of these methods. 

Subject-matter of the silent-reading tests. — The selections used for 
the tests of silent reading were printed on cards so that they could 
be easily handled. Each selection was printed in three sections. 
The middle section contained 100 words in the case of the easiest 
selection and 200 words in the case of each of the two more difficult 
selections. The section at the left of the middle section serves a 
double purpose: First, it gives the pupil something to read by way 
of preparation for the test part of the passage; secondly, the tester 
can readily determine the moment at which the reader moves his 
eyes from the bottom of the card to the top of the card where the 
words upon which the time record is based begin. In the following 
passages the ends of sections are indicated by the short horizontal 
lines. The passages used are as follows: 

Tiny Tad 

(for second and third grades) 

Tiny Tad was a queer little fellow with only two legs and a short tail. He 
was nearly black, too, and much smaller than most tadpoles in the big pond. 
He could hardly wait for his front legs to grow. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 49 

"When I have them all," he said, "I'll leave this dirty water and go up 
into the orchard. What fun it will be to hop and hop and hop. If only I 
had a little brother to hop with me, I should be so happy." 

It wasn't long before his legs began to grow. He moved about and kicked 
around until his legs were quite strong. "I am going out on the bank to see 
if I can hop," he said one night when he was just six weeks old. 

The sun was hardly up the next morning when a 



little toad jumped out 
of the water and hopped up on the bank. He was very small, but none too 
small for the little legs that wabbled under him. It was Tiny, the young toad. 

The Grasshoppers 

(for fourth, iteth, and sixth grades) 

The grasshoppers were among the worst enemies of the early settlers of 
Nebraska. Their homes were on the high plains and among the hills at the 
foot of the great mountains in the West. Here they lived and raised their 
families. 



In dry seasons there were more children and less food at home. Then they 
assembled and flew away in great swarms to the east and to the south. They 
traveled hundreds of miles. Sometimes on clear, warm, moonlight nights 
they traveled all night. More often they settled down late in the afternoon 
and fed, and then continued their way the next day. 

The great grasshopper raid took place in September, 1874. Suddenly 
along the frontier states the air to the west was filled with grasshoppers. There 
were billions of them in the great clouds which darkened the sun. The noise 
of their wings filled the air with a roaring sound like a rushing storm, followed 
by a deep hush as they dropped to the earth and began to devour the crop. 

All the corn was eaten in a single day. Where cornfields stood at sunrise 
nothing remained at night but stumps of stalks swarming with hungry hoppers 
struggling for the last bite. They stripped the garden patches bare. They 
gnawed great holes in the rugs and carpets put out to save favorite plants. 
The buds and fruit of trees were consumed. They followed the potatoes and 
onions into the ground. 

When they finished the garden and green crops, they 
attacked the wheat and oats in the shock and the wild grass in theunplowed 
fields. Only two green crops escaped them, broom corn and sorghum cane. 
They did not seem to have a sweet tooth. 



50 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

Ancient Ships 

(for seventh and eighth grades) 

There is no more interesting study to marine architects than that of the 
growth of modern ships from their earliest form. Ancient ships of war and 
of commerce equally interest them; but as they study the sculptures and 
writings of the ancients, they find records of warships far outnumbering ships 
of commerce. 

Among ancient nations the Greeks and Romans were the best shipbuilders. 
Judging from the description of their works their crafts must have been elegant, 
swift, and seaworthy. This is more than can be said of many of the more showy 
productions of the shipyards of Britain, France, and Spain even so late as the 
Middle Ages. 

There is no question now that the ships of the ancients made extended 
voyages urged by oars alone. A thousand oarsmen were sometimes required 
to man the sweeps, besides a crew of five hundred soldiers and sailors. Written 
descriptions give us splendid pictures of fleets of these ancient ships moving 
swiftly along the white villa-dotted shores of Greece, or majestically sweeping 
into some mirror-like harbor and with sounding trumpets saluting the setting 
of the low, western sun. 

We are able to make from old records very fair models of these ancient 
warships. One writer describes the great galley of Philopator as propelled by 
forty banks of oars. His description is questioned, for however plain the 
description of these warships may be, no one has yet shown the precise manner 
in which forty banks could be arranged. A bank of oars means a 



row on one 
deck, and while there are many pictures of galleys they show nothing more than 
a trireme, which is a ship of three banks. A ship of forty banks puzzles our 
imagination. 

After the pupil had read the selection appropriate for his grade 
he was given a sheet of printed directions. On one side of the sheet 
the directions state that the pupil should write thereon all he could 
remember of the story which he had read. As soon as he completed 
his reproduction he turned the sheet and answered the ten questions 
which were printed there. The questions for each of the selections 
are as follows: 

Tiny Tad 

i. How many legs did Tiny Tad have at the first of the story? 
2. How did Tiny compare in size with most of the other tadpoles in the 
pond? 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 51 

3. Which legs did Tiny wish would grow ? 

4. Where did Tiny say he would go when he got all his legs ? 

5. What did Tiny wish he had to hop with him ? 

6. What did Tiny do to make his legs grow strong ? 

7. How old was Tiny when he decided to leave the pond? 

8. What part of the morning did Tiny choose for leaving the pond ? 

9. How did Tiny get upon the bank ? 

10. What size was Tiny at the end of the story ? 

The Grasshoppers 

1. In what western state were the grasshoppers enemies to the settlers? 

2. What effect did dry seasons have on the number of grasshoppers ? 

3. On what kind of nights did the grasshoppers sometimes travel all night 
long? 

4. When the grasshoppers were making their long journeys, what would 
they often do late in the afternoon ? 

5. In what year did the great grasshopper raid take place ? 

6. Like what did the great groups of grasshoppers look as they traveled 
through the air ? 

7. What sort of noise did they make when flying through the air ? 

8. What change was brought about in the appearance of the cornfields by 
the grasshoppers between morning and night ? 

9. What did the settlers do to protect their favorite plants ? 

10. Why didn't the grasshoppers eat the broom corn and sorghum ? 

Ancient Ships 

1. To whom is the study of the growth of modern ships interesting? 

2. How do the records of warships compare in number with the records 
of the ships of commerce ? 

3. What peoples were the best shipbuilders among the ancient nations? 

4. How did the ancient vessels compare in elegance and swiftness with the 
more showy productions of the Middle Ages ? 

5. What kind of voyages were sometimes made by ancient ships when 
propelled by oars only ? 

6. What was the total number of men required on some of the ships? 

7. Explain clearly what a "white villa-dotted shore" means to you. 

8. From what source do we secure the ideas which enable us to make 
models of the ancient warships? 

9. What does a "bank of oars" mean? 

10. Why do we question the statement that the great galley of Philopator 
had forty banks of oars ? 

Directions for giving the silent-reading tests. — 1. The purpose of 
this test is to determine rate and comprehension in silent reading. 



52 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

2. Grades II and III are tested on "Tiny Tad," Grades IV, V, 
and VI on "The Grasshoppers," Grades VII and VIII on "Ancient 
Ships." 

3. The teacher first fills in the four blanks at the top of a report 
sheet: 

Name School , etc. 

4. The teacher then hands the pupil a card with the selection 
appropriate for his grade printed on it, with these directions : " Read 
the story on this card silently. Read the story from beginning to 
end without stopping or repeating any of it. Read the story 
rapidly but carefully. Do not stop reading to ask about difficult 
words; read them as well as you can. Be prepared to tell the story 
or to answer any question about it when you are through. Do you 
understand ? " Make the directions clear to the pupil before begin- 
ning the reading. 

5. Secure the time record as follows: When the pupil shifts 
from the bottom of the first column to the top of the middle column, 
note the position of the second hand. When he shifts from the 
bottom of the middle column to the top of the third column, note 
the second hand again. Record the number of seconds required to 
read the middle column. Be sure that your record indicates the 
time for reading the middle column only. If possible, use a stop 
watch. 

6. If the pupil has been reading "Tiny Tad," ask him to tell 
you the story of Tiny Tad as well as he can. In the meantime 
write as rapidly as possible just what the pupil says. Ask the pupil 
to tell it a sentence at a time if he talks too rapidly. When he 
discontinues speaking, ask him if he remembers anything else. 
Following this, ask him the questions and record his answers. 

7. If the pupil has been reading "The Grasshoppers" or 
"Ancient Ships," hand him the report blank to fill out. Ask him 
to write the story which he has read as well as he can. Impress 
upon him the fact that he should not look at the questions on the 
opposite side of the sheet until he has finished writing his story. 
While the pupil is filling the blank, the next pupil may take the 
test. 



DESCRIPTION OF TEE READING TESTS 



53 



Speed of silent reading. — The speed of silent reading was deter- 
mined as follows : The average number of seconds required by each 
grade to read ioo words was determined. This average was then 
expressed in terms of the number of words read per second by 
dividing ioo by the average number of seconds required to read 
ioo words. Diagram II shows the progress of 2,654 pupils in rate 
of silent reading, representing thirteen city systems, and may be 
used as a standard for comparison. Since three selections were 
used in order to adapt the subject-matter to the maturity of pupils 



4.00 



3.00 



2.00 



1.00 





3} 21 






2**97 






Zv 21 






1197 






1J.21 






|.97 




y 













2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6 th 7 th 

Diagram II. — Progress of 2,654 pupils in rate of silent reading 



8 th 



of different grades, a readjustment was necessary in the diagram. 
The points of this readjustment are between the third and fourth 
grades and between the sixth and seventh grades. A dotted line 
is drawn in the diagram dividing the curves of progress at these 
points. The figures at the left of the diagram indicate the number 
of words read per second when the easy selection was read; the 
figures on the line between the third and fourth grades indicate the 
equivalent number of words read per second when the second selec- 
tion was used; and the figures on the line between the sixth and 
seventh grades indicate the equivalent rate for the most difficult 



54 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



selection. The average number of words read per second by each 
of the grades is as follows: 

"Tiny Tad" 

Second Third 

1.50 2.30 



"The Grasshoppers" 
Fourth Fifth Sixth 

2.20 2.57 2.79 



"Ancient Ships" 

Seventh Eighth 

2.69 2.87 



Quality of silent reading. — The quality of the pupil's reading was 
determined as follows: All wrong statements, irrelevant statements, 
and repetitions were checked from the pupil's reproduction, and 
the remaining words counted. The ratio of these words to the total 
number of words forms the reproduction grade. For each question 



60. 




1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
4812 


ft 




27ll 




50. 




1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

38i2 






^"l7ll 




40. 




1 
1 
1 
1 
• 

28i2 ^ 






'f 1 




30. 




1 

1 
18l2 











2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 

Diagram III. — Progress of 2,654 pupils in quality of silent reading 



8th 



answered correctly a grade of 10 points was given. The average 
of the reproduction grade and the grade received for correct answers 
to questions was found. This average grade formed the quality 
score in silent reading. The average quality score was then deter- 
mined. The progress of 2,654 pupils in quality of silent reading is 
represented in Diagram III. This diagram contains readjustments 
similar to those described in connection with Diagram II and should 
be similarly interpreted. The average quality mark for each of the 
grades is as follows: 



"Tiny Tad" 
Second Third 



"The Grasshoppers" 
Fourth Fifth Sixth 



32 



37 



29 



32 



39 



"Ancient Ships" 

Seventh Eighth 

22 27 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 55 

Revised score sheet. — The score sheet for both the oral-reading 
test and the silent-reading tests is presented on the following page 
in the form in which it is now being used. The directions for giving 
both tests and for scoring the results as described on the back of 
the score sheet are given on pp. 55-59). 

DIRECTIONS FOR GIVING THE ORAL-READING TESTS 

1. The pupils should be tested individually in a quiet place where they will be 
free from distraction and where the remainder of the pupils to be tested will not 
hear the reading. 

2. When everything is in readiness to begin, hand the pupil a copy of the stand- 
ardized paragraphs and give the following directions: "I should like for you to read 
some of these paragraphs for me. Begin with the first paragraph when I say 'Begin.' 
Stop at the end of each paragraph until I say 'Next.' If you should find some hard 
words, read them as best you can without help and continue reading." Pupils above 
the fourth grade should begin with paragraph 4. If two or more errors are made 
in this paragraph, ask the pupil to read the preceding paragraphs also. In case pupils 
in the first two grades hesitate several seconds on a difficult word, pronounce it for 
the pupil and mark it as mispronounced. 

3. While the pupil is reading, record two sets of facts in regard to the reading: 
the time required to read each paragraph and the errors made. 

a) The time record is secured by noting the exact second at which the pupil 
begins reading a paragraph and the time when he completes it. The number of 
seconds required to read the paragraph should be recorded in the margin to the right 
of the paragraph. 

b) In order to illustrate clearly the character of errors and the method of record- 
ing them, the following paragraph is inserted: 

The sun pierced into rnylaTge windows. It was the opening of October, 
and the^sky was(oya dazzling blue. I looked out of my window Cand) down 
the street. The white house|)of the long, slight street were(<i$most painful 
to the eyes. The clear atmosphere allowed full play to Jhg su^sjprightness- 

If a word is wholly mispronounced, underline it as in the case of "atmosphere." 
If a portion of a word is mispronounced, mark appropriately as indicated above: 
"pierced" pronounced in two syllables, sounding long a in "dazzling," omitting the 
s in "houses" or the al from "almost," or the r in "straight." Omitted words are 
marked as in the case of "of" and "and"; substitutions as in the case of "many" 
for "my"; insertions as in the case of "clear"; and repetitions as in the case of "to 
the sun's." Two or more words should be repeated to count as a repetition. 

It is very difficult to record the exact nature of each error. Do this as nearly as 
you can. In all cases where you are unable to define clearly the specific character of 
the error, underline the word or portion of the word mispronounced. Be sure you 
put down a mark for each error. In case you are not sure that an error was made, 



56 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



o 

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p 
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W 

w 

M 

W 
Pi 

o 
o 

w 



'0 



a 
a 
o 
u 

H 

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g 



< 

H 

z 


>>0! 

Is 

o> OT 




























3.2 

0"* 




























2§ 




























03 

P4 




























CO 

Q 

8 

o 
w 

o 

M 

O 


J3 
ft 


p-. to 

P-ic/3 




























H 




























a 




























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00 




























t^ 




























>o 




























lO 




























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'3. 

3 


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"3 
c 
_o 




























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V 

§ 

OS 


w 


N 


CO 


>+ 


»/) 


MD 


t^ 


CO 


^ 


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H 


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M 


M 


in 

<L> 
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o 

0] 

*c3 

O 

H 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 



57 



give the pupil the benefit of the doubt. If the pupil has a slight foreign accent, dis- 
tinguish carefully between this difficulty and real errors. 

4. Each pupil should be allowed to continue reading until he makes seven errors 
in each of two paragraphs. 

DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING THE RESULTS 

i. Score the results for each paragraph through the use of the following table. 
The numbers in the left-hand column refer to the number of seconds required to read 
a paragraph. The numbers in the horizontal line at the top of the table refer to the 
number of errors made in reading. The numbers in the horizontal line to the right of 
40 mean that if a paragraph is read in 40 or more seconds with no errors a credit of 
4 is given; with 1 error, a credit of 4; with 2 errors, a credit of 3; with 3 errors, a 
credit of 2, etc. 



Seconds 



40 or more 

30-39 

25-29 

20-24 

19 or less. . 



Errors 



7 or 
More 



To find the score for a given paragraph, note the time required to read it and 
the number of errors made. For illustration, paragraph 1 may be read by pupil A 
in 34 seconds with 3 errors. 

In the left-hand column of the table find the time unit which corresponds to 34 
seconds. Evidently it is the time unit 30-39. 

Follow the horizontal line of numbers to the right of 30-39 to the column which 
represents 3 errors. The score indicated there is 2. 

Enter this score on the score sheet in the col umn for paragraph 1, opposite the 
reader's name. 

The score for each paragraph should be determined and entered in the same way. 
Make no entry on the score sheet if the score is o. 

2. Proceed as follows to find the average class score: 

a) Find the sum of the scores for each paragraph separately and enter each 
total score at the foot of the appropriate column on the score sheet. 

b) Enter the total score for each paragraph in the column under "Score," in the 
table on p. 58. 

c) The value or credit given for the successful reading of paragraph 1 varies with 
the grade. These values are given in the column to the right of the table. Enter the 
appropriate value for paragraph 1 in the blank space in the column under "Value." 
Thus, the appropriate value for paragraph 1, for the third grade, is 30. The values 
for all other paragraphs remain the same for all grades. 

d) Multiply the score for each paragraph by its value and enter the result in the 
column under "Product." 



58 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



e) Find the sum of the products and divide by 4 times the number of pupils in 
the class. The result is the average class score. 
3. Individual scores may be found as follows: 

a) Do as directed in b), c), and d) in the directions for finding the average class 
score. 

b) Divide the sum of the products by 4. The result is the individual score. 

c) The average class score may be found by finding the average of the individual 
scores. 



Paragraph 


Score X Value 


Product 














s 


VALUE FOR PARAGRAPH I 




5 




5 


Grade 1 55 




5 


II 35 

HI 30 


6 


5 




5 


8 


5 


IV 25 





5 


V 20 


10 


5 


VI is 

VII 10 


11 


10 


12 


s 






VIII 5 








Average class score . . . 







DIRECTIONS FOR GIVING THE SILENT-READING TESTS 

1. Grades II and III are tested on "Tiny Tad;" Grades IV, V, and VI on "The 
Grasshoppers;" Grades VII and VIII on "Ancient Ships." 

2. The teacher then hands the pupil a card with the selection appropriate for his 
grade printed on it, with these directions: "Read the story on this card silently. 
Read the story from beginning to end without stopping or repeating any of it. Read 
the story rapidly but carefully. Do not stop reading to ask about difficult words; 
read such as best you can. Be prepared to tell the story or to answer any question 
about it when you are through. Do you understand?" Make the directions clear 
to the pupil before beginning the reading. 

3. Secure the time record as follows: When the pupil shifts from the bottom of 
the first column to the top of the middle column, note the position of the second-hand. 
When he shifts from the bottom of the middle column to the top of the third column, 
note the second-hand again. Record the number of seconds required to read the 
middle column. Be sure that your record indicates the time for reading the middle 
column only. If possible, use a stop watch. 

4. If the pupil has been reading "Tiny Tad," ask him to tell you the story of 
Tiny Tad as well as he can. In the meantime write as rapidly as you can just what 
the pupil says. Ask the pupil to tell a sentence at a time if he talks too rapidly. 
When he discontinues speaking, ask him if he remembers anything else. Following 
this, ask him the questions and record his answers. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE READING TESTS 59 

5. If the pupil has been reading "The Grasshoppers" or "Ancient Ships," hand 
him the report blank to fill out. Ask him to write the story which he has read as well 
as he can. Impress upon him the fact that he should not look at the questions on the 
opposite side of the sheet until he has finished writing his story. 

DIRECTIONS FOE SCORING THE RESULTS 

Rate of silent reading — 

1. Enter the number of seconds required by each Dupil to read 100 words in the 
column under "Rate" on the record sheet. The time record for pupils who read "The 
Grasshoppers" and "Ancient Ships" was based on 200 words. Divide the time 
record for these pupils by 2 before entering the rate on the record sheet. Drop frac- 
tions. 

2. Find the average number of seconds required by the pupils of a class to read 
100 words. 

3. Express this average in terms of the number of words read per second. To 
do this divide 100 by the average number of seconds required by the class to read 
100 words. 

Quality of silent reading — 

1. Score the reproductions as follows: check from the pupil's reproduction all 
wrong statements, all irrelevant statements, and all repetitions. Count the remaining 
words. Find the percentage that these words are of the total nunber of words in 
the selection. Enter the result in the column under "Reproduction" on the record 
sheet. 

2. Give a credit of 10 points to each question answered correctly. Enter the total 
grade for each pupil for questions answered correctly in the column under "Ques- 
tions." 

3. Average the reproduction grade and the grade received for correct answers to 
questions for the quality score. Drop fractions. Enter the quality score in the 
appropriate column on the record sheet. 

4. Find the average quality score for the class by finding the sum of the individual 
quality scores and dividing by the number of pupils in the class. 



CHAPTER IV 
VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 

It is the purpose of this chapter to give a description of the 
methods used in deriving the series of standardized paragraphs for 
the oral-reading test, to discuss the validity of the test, and to point 
out significant limitations. 

The initial attempt to derive an oral-reading test resulted in the 
selection of a tentative series of paragraphs. This series passed 
through two successive modifications before the present test was 
derived. In certain respects the methods which were employed at 
the outset were retained unchanged throughout the study. In 
other respects the methods were materially changed as the study 
developed. The following description of the derivation of the 
test presents in detail the methods which were used and the results 
which were secured in each of the successive studies. 

DESCRIPTIVE SUMMARY OF THE INITIAL STUDY 1 

The purpose of this study was to derive a tentative scale for the 
measurement of certain phases of oral-reading ability. It seemed 
best to limit this initial investigation to the measurement of ability 
along certain very definite lines that are objective and easily 
measured. The time required to read a paragraph and the number 
of errors made in reading were adopted as the basis for measure- 
ment. An analysis of the errors made by pupils led to the following 
classification of errors: 

i. Gross errors in pronunciation, i.e., mispronunciations which 
indicate clearly that the words are be)^ond the pupil's ability. 

2. Minor errors in pronunciation, i.e., mispronunciation of one 
or two elements of a word. 

3. Omission of words. 

4. Substitution of one word for another. 

5. Insertion of words not included in the text. 

M Tentative Scale for the Measurement of Oral Reading Ability, Master's Thesis, 
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1914. 

60 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 61 

Methods employed in selecting the paragraphs for the test. — As a 
first step in selecting the passages for the reading test ten sets of 
readers of recent date were studied. From the various readers for 
the different grades sixty representative paragraphs were chosen 
with the following points in mind: (i) that each paragraph contain 
about 50 words; (2) that each paragraph contain a somewhat com- 
plete thought-unit; (3) that the thought of the paragraphs be 
adapted to the interests of children. It was impossible to conform 
strictly to the last point mentioned in the case of the more difficult 
paragraphs. Furthermore, in a very large number of cases it was 
necessary to reconstruct the paragraphs in order to make them 
conform to the three standards mentioned above. 

From the collection of sixty paragraphs sixteen were chosen, 
which in the opinion of the writer represented a series of paragraphs 
of various degrees of difficulty. These paragraphs were then num- 
bered without regard to their order and submitted to twenty 
graduate students with these directions: "Please arrange the fol- 
lowing paragraphs in the order of their difficulty for oral read- 
ing with emphasis particularly upon pronunciation. When you 
have completed the arrangement of the paragraphs, record the 
order on the accompanying blank by placing the number of the 
easiest slip opposite First, the number of the next easiest opposite 
Second, etc." 

The rankings of the paragraphs by the individual judges appear 
in Table IX. The numbers in the vertical column to the left of 
the table are the numbers which were assigned to the specimen 
paragraphs. The numbers in the horizontal line at the top of the 
table are the numbers which were assigned to the various judges. 
The entries in the table are the rankings or order of difficulty of 
the various paragraphs as determined respectively by each judge, 
1 representing the easiest; 16, the hardest. Before proceeding 
farther it should be stated that rankings by judges should not be 
given much weight in establishing a scale unless the judges are 
competent to offer expert opinion concerning the problem at hand 
and unless a large number of judgments are secured upon which to 
base conclusions. Since the relative difficulty of the paragraphs 
can be determined most accurately on the basis of data secured from 



62 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



elementary-school pupils, the opinions of twenty graduate students 
are used in this study merely as a preliminary guide. 

TABLE IX 

Distribution of the Rankings of the Specimen Paragraphs by Each 
of the Judges 



Para- 
graph 


Judges 












































i 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


I. . . 


4 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


s 


s 


6 


4 


12 


7 


2 


2 


16 


6 


7 


4 


3 


2. . . 


7 


6 


10 


S 


6 


6 


S 


9 


6 


9 


7 


13 


4 


S 


3 


6 


7 


3 


10 


4 


3-- 


5 


4 


8 


4 


S 


S 


3 


6 


3 


5 


9 


16 


2 


4 


6 


S 


4 


4 


3 


6 


4... 


9 


9 


11 


6 


8 


12 


8 


13 


8 


12 


14 


8 


3 


6 


S 


14 


11 


6 


9 


7 


$■■■ 


2 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


4 


3 


6 


3 


4 


10 


1 


1 


1 


1 


6... 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


14 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


7 


16 


16 


16 


6 


7... 


12 


10 


9 


12 


11 


9 


12 


3 


9 


14 


8 


9 


5 


9 


14 


3 


8 


13 


S 


9 


8... 


8 


12 


12 


8 


10 


11 


11 


IS 


12 


11 


13 


10 


12 


11 


8 


IS 


12 


12 


7 


12 


9... 


6 


7 


4 


11 


3 


10 


6 


14 


11 


4 


2 


14 


10 


8 


10 


8 


3 


5 


6 


S 


10. . . 


IS 


15 


IS 


13 


13 


8 


13 


11 


14 


IS 


11 


4 


IS 


10 


13 


13 


IS 


11 


12 


13 


11. . . 


1 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


12. . . 


14 


13 


14 


15 


15 


16 


14 


10 


IS 


8 


15 


2 


13 


14 


9 


4 


14 


15 


14 


IS 


13... 


11 


14 


13 


14 


14 


IS 


15 


7 


13 


13 


12 


7 


8 


IS 


IS 


11 


13 


14 


IS 


14 


14... 


10 


S 


6 


9 


9 


7 


7 


8 


4 


10 


3 


11 


11 


7 


7 


9 


9 


8 


11 


10 


IS-- 


13 


11 


S 


10 


12 


3 


9 


S 


13 


3 


6 


S 


9 


12 


11 


1 


10 


10 


13 


8 


16... 


3 


8 


7 


7 


7 


13 


10 


12 


7 


7 


10 


IS 


14 


13 


12 


12 


S 


9 


8 


11 



As an aid in determining the combined opinion of the twenty 
judges in regard to the rank of each paragraph, Table IX was con- 
verted into Table X, which shows the number of times each para- 
graph was given certain rankings by the judges. The numbers in 
the vertical column to the left of the table refer to the paragraphs. 
The numbers in the horizontal line at the top of the table refer to 
the rankings. The entries represent the number of times each 
paragraph was given certain rankings by the twenty judges. 

To determine temporarily the position of each paragraph in the 
series, the opinion of the median judge was taken as a guide. 
Referring now to Table X, paragraph 1, and adding the integers in 
the line to the right, one must include four-sixths of the 6 in column 4 
before reaching the median. Since the median for paragraph 1 falls 
under rank 4, paragraph 1 was assigned fourth place in the series. 
In a similar manner the median was found in the case of each of the 
other paragraphs and their positions were determined. It will be 
noted that in the case of paragraphs 4, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, and 16 the 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 



63 



position of the paragraph in the series lies between two rankings 
rather than at a definite point. The median rank of each paragraph 
is indicated in the vertical column at the right of Table X. 

TABLE X 
Number of Times Each Paragraph Was Given Certain Rankings by the Judges 



Paragraph 


Rankings 


Median Rank 


1 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


is 


16 


I 


O 
O 
O 
O 

5 








14 



1 



2 


1 


9 




1 

6 
1 






4 
2 

3 

1 
2 

2 

2 




1 
2 
1 


6 
2 

5 

2 




2 

1 

1 

1 




2 
3 

S 
1 


2 

2 




1 

3 

1 


2 

s 

3 
3 

1 
1 



3 




1 
1 



2 

3 

O 
I 
O 
I 
O 
I 
I 
O 
O 
O 
2 

4 



5 


O 
O 
I 

4 


2 

3 
2 

1 


1 
1 
2 
1 
2 



2 

1 

3 



6 




1 


4 
2 

1 



2 



1 

1 
2 

3 

1 

1 

3 
3 
2 





2 


1 

4 
2 

3 



2 

3 
2 

1 


1 


2 


3 
7 

1 


1 

2 
3 




1 

1 


1 
1 

6 

2 

4 


3 
2 





2 

1 
2 

2 
1 

6 

S 



1 









2 

6 

6 

S 




1 


1 

1 



17 





1 






4 


2 


6 


3 


s 


4 


Between 8 and 9 


5 


2 


6 


16 


7 


9 
Between 11 and 12 


8. 


9 


Between 6 and 7 


10 

11 

12 


13 

1 
14 


13 

14 


Between 13 and 14 
Between 8 and 9 


15 


Between 9 and 10 


16 


Between 9 and 10 





After the relative position of the paragraphs in the series were 
determined in this general way, the equality of the steps of differ- 
ence was next determined through a use of the principles involved 
in The Equality of Equally Often Noted Differences (Thorndike, 1913, 
p. 122). The method of procedure was as follows: Paragraph 11, 
Table X, which holds first place in the series, was compared with 
paragraph 5, which holds second place in the series, to determine 
how many judges marked 1 1 as harder than 5. Similar comparisons 
were made between the second and third paragraphs in the series, 
the third and fourth, etc. In the case of paragraph 9, which holds 
sixth place in the series, a comparison was made, not only with 
paragraph 2, which holds fifth place, but also with both paragraphs 
4 and 14, each of which holds seventh place in the series. Other 
double comparisons were necessary, as will be noted in Table XL 

Table XI is easily interpreted. For our purpose it is essential 
to note that paragraph 9 is rated as harder than paragraph 4 by 
7 judges and as harder than paragraph 14 by 8 judges. Since the 



64 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

differences between 9 and 4, on the one hand, and between 9 and 14, 
on the other hand, are about equal, according to the opinion of the 
twenty judges, either paragraph 4 or paragraph 14 may be dropped. 
For our purposes 14 was dropped. Similarly, the differences 
between paragraphs 7 and 15 and between paragraphs 7 and 16 
are about equal. Either paragraph 15 or paragraph 16 should 
have been dropped from the list. Through some oversight para- 
graph 7 was dropped instead. In all other cases the differences 
between the successive paragraphs are large enough to justify their 

TABLE XI 

Steps of Difference between the Successive Paragraphs of the Scale 
Number of judges rating 11 harder than 5 is 5; vice versa, 15 



5 


u 


a 


I 


u 


2 


« 


it 


18 


1 


tt 


tt 


3 


u 


8 


a 


it 


12 


3 


tt 


a 


2 


u 


5 


a 




IS 


2 


tt 


tt 


9 


u 


7 


u 


tt 


13 


9 


tt 


a 


4 


u 


7 


a 


it 


13 


9 


a 


a 


14 


a 


8 


u 


it 


12 


4 


a 


it 


7 


u. 


7 


it 


it 


13 


14 


a 


tt 


7 


u 


7 


a 


it 


13 


7 


tt 


a 


15 


a 


11 


u 


it 


9 


7 


tt 


tt 


16 


u 


11 


a 


tt 


9 


IS 


a 


a 


8 


u 


7 


(i 


it 


13 


16 


tt 


u 


8 


u 


6 


a 


tt 


14 


8 


tt 


u 


10 


a 


7 


a 


tt 


13 


10 


tt 


u 


13 


u 


9 


u 


tt 


11 


13 


tt 


u 


12 


a 


8 


it 


tt 


12 


12 


u 


u 


6 


u 


2 


u 


tt 


18 



retention in the list. As a result of the study of the data of Tables 
IX, X, and XI, the final order of the paragraphs in the revised list 
was as follows: The intervening numbers inclosed in parentheses 
represent the steps of difference: ii-(i5)-5-(i8)-i-(i2)-3-(i5)-2- 
(i3)-9-(i3)-4-(22)-i5-(o or i)-i6-(i4)-8-(i3)-io-(n)-i3-(i2)- 
i2-(i8)-6. 

Two additional steps were now taken in order to complete the 
scale. It will be noted that the difference between paragraphs 5 
and 1 is quite distinct, since 18 of the 20 judges decided that para- 
graph 5 was easier than paragraph 1. The difference between 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 65 

paragraphs 12 and 6 is similarly distinct. Because of the large 
" steps of difference" between these respective couplets it seemed 
best to select a paragraph intermediate in difficulty to fit in between 
the members of each couplet. With the help of a graduate student 
the needed paragraphs were chosen. This added two new para- 
graphs to the list, making sixteen in all. The large difference 
between paragraphs 4 and 15 was due to the error already men- 
tioned. It was not considered in this revision of the list because 
the mistake was not discovered in time. 

Before the test was printed it was given to forty pupils. An 
examination of the data suggested two changes. First, it seemed 
that the paragraph which had been inserted between paragraphs 5 
and 1 was easier than paragraph 5, and also that there was not 
quite as distinct a difference between paragraphs 5 and 1 as the 
judges had thought. This suggested a reorganization of the first 
four paragraphs of the series into the following order: paragraph n, 
the newly inserted paragraph, paragraph 5, paragraph 1. The 
data also suggested the fact that the scale did not include as diffi- 
cult passages as would be necessary to test upper-grade pupils. To 
remedy this situation, four difficult paragraphs were added to the 
scale. The paragraphs were now numbered in the order of increas- 
ing difficulty and printed as they appear below. 



It was time for winter to come. The little birds had all gone far away. 
They were afraid of the cold. There was no green grass in the fields, and there 
were no pretty flowers in the gardens. Many of the trees had dropped all 
their leaves. Cold winter with its snow and ice was coming soon. 



Once there lived a king and queen in a large palace. But the king and 
queen were not happy. There were no little children in the house or garden. 
One day they found a poor little boy and girl at their door. They took them 
into the palace and made them their own. The king and queen were then 
happy. 

3 

Once a green little leaf was heard to sigh and cry, as leaves often do when 
a gentle wind blows. "What is the matter, Little Leaf ? " said the twig. The 
little leaf replied, "The wind just told me that one day it would pull me off 
and throw me down to the ground to die. That is why I am so sad." 



66 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



Once I went home from the city for a summer's rest. I took my gun for a 
stroll in the woods where I had shot many squirrels. I put my gun against 
a tree and lay down upon the leaves. Soon I was fast asleep, dreaming of a 
group of merry, laughing children running and playing about me on all sides . 

5 
One of the most interesting birds which ever lived in my bird-room was a 
blue jay named Jakie. He was full of business from morning till night, scarcely 
ever still. He had been stolen from a nest long before he could fly, and he was 
reared in a house long before he had been given to me as a pet. 

6 

Henry was a busy farmer. His fafmhouse stood on a hillside above the 
seashore. Along the shore and up the hillside were the houses of his friendly 
neighbors. Around his house the ground was flat, like the top of a huge step 
in the hillside. All about him stretched his small, verdant rice fields. 

7 

. It was a glad summer morning. Little birds teetered on the twigs of the 

trees. They opened their throats and sang as loud as they could. Flowers 

nodded to each other in the gardens and along the wayside. Butterflies went 

flitting about gayly, the morning air was fresh and sweet, and all was gladness. 



I remained there nearly two hours, I dare say. Once I opened the yard 
gate and looked into the empty street. The sand, the seaweeds, and the flakes 
of foam were driving by, and I was obliged to call for assistance before I could 
shut the gate again and make it securely fast against the strong wind. 

9 

The part of farming enjoyed most by a boy is the making of maple sugar. 
It is better than blackberrying and almost as good as fishing. One reason he 
likes this work is that someone else does most of it. It is a sort of work in 
which he can appear to be very industrious, and yet do but little. 



Rip would carry a fowling piece on his shoulder for hours together. He 
would trudge through the woods and swamps, up hill and down dale, to shoot 
a few squirrels or pigeons. He would never refuse to assist a neighbor in any 
way. Even the women of the village often employed him to run their little 
errands. 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 67 



As far as the eye could reach the sea was of a deep blue color in every 
direction. The waves were running high, and were fresh and sparkling in the 
sunlight. In the midst lay an immense iceberg. Its cavities and valleys were 
thrown into deep shades. Its points and towers glittered brightly in the sun. 



The sun pierced into my large windows. It was the opening of October, 
and the sky was of a dazzling blue. I looked out of my window and down 
the street. The white houses of the long, straight streets were almost painful 
to the eyes. The clear atmosphere allowed full play to the sun's brightness. 

13 
The success of Greeley's paper was immediate and great. It grew a little 
faster than the machinery for producing it could be provided. The success 
of the paper was due to the fact that the editor's original idea was carried out. 
He aimed to produce a paper which was morally helpful to the public. 

14 

It was one of those wonderful evenings such as are found only in this 
magnificent region. The sun had sunk behind the mountains, but it was still 
light. The twilight glow embraced a third of the sky, and against its brilliancy 
stood the dull white masses of the mountains in evident contrast. 

15 

The crown and glory of a useful life is character. It is the noblest posses- 
sion of man, constituting a rank in itself, an estate in the general good-will, 
dignifying every station, and exalting every position in society. It exercises a 
greater power than wealth, and is a valuable means of securing honor. 

16 

George Washington was in every sense of the word a wise, good, and great 
man. But his temper was naturally irritable and high-toned. Through reflec- 
tion and resolution he had obtained a firm and habitual ascendancy over it. 
If, however, it broke loose its bonds, he was most tremendous in his wrath. 

17 
He was six feet tall, and his body was well-proportioned. His complexion 
inclined to the florid; his eyes were blue and remarkably far apart. A pro- 
fusion of hair covered the forehead. He was scrupulously neat in his appear- 
ance, and, although he habitually left his tent at an early hour, he was well 
dressed. 



68 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

18 

Responding to the impulse of habit, Josephus spoke and the others listened 
attentively, but in grim and contemptuous silence. He spoke for a long time, 
continuously, persistently, and ingratiatingly. Finally exhausted through 
lack of nourishment, he hesitated. As always happens in that contingency, 
he was lost. 

19 

The hypotheses concerning physical phenomena formulated by the early 
philosophers proved to be inconsistent and, in general, not universally appli- 
cable. Before relatively accurate principles could be established, physicists, 
mathematicians, and statisticians had to combine forces and work arduously. 



"Read the following sentences correctly: Sophistry is fallacious reason- 
ing. They resuscitated him. Verbiage is wordiness. Equanimity is evenness 
of mind. He has a pertinacious, obstinate disposition. There was subtlety 
and poignancy in his remarks. A hypocritical and pharisaical nature is 
usually cynical." 

To whom the test was given. — The test was given to 565 pupils 
from the third to the eighth grade inclusive. These pupils repre- 
sented four schools, three in the city of New York and one in a 
small city in central Illinois. Two of the schools of New York are 
located in foreign districts of the city. The third New York school 
represents a more truly American population, economically inde- 
pendent. The Illinois school represents an American population 
of average economic rank. The pupils were about equally divided 
between native American and foreign-born children, and represent 
practically every economic level. 

Scoring the results. — The method of securing the data and scoring 
the results was the same as that described in chap, hi of this report. 
One exception should be mentioned. In this initial study repeti- 
tions were not recorded as a type of error. In a later section of this 
chapter the validity of the standards for scoring will be discussed. 

The records of all pupils were scored according to each of the 
four standards. Certain of the results are given in Table XII. 
The table contains the results for the sixth grade by each of the 
four standards, the aggregate results for the sixth grade by all 
standards, and the aggregate results for all grades by all the 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 



69 



H i 
a w 

H Pi 



a 3 



<3 
< 



g" 5 



H 8 

C/2C/3 



O < 






0>>OM O *0 co co <* mmO tOO 0> O *0*0 f* 

TTTTiiiiiiii ++++++++ 

tj- 1^ w mo>Hvo O100 O 'O ■<* r*oo ^ m o o wo 

-*t00 vOO'tOa^W)«ONMN>Ov)<tfO • 
O*00 l> t-^O O 10 t^ V) V) ifl >0 ^ ^t (O « CI M 

«<t ** tJ-oO coco r^POOOO m Oit^incoO »o O O co 

itM>0 Ci m tf-t V)\0 0> M iONt}- to 0»O COOO m 

O-00 WO O^O t^M NVJM co ^ w 00 r» t>.\o « »o 

M HVO NWN W COW OM OlOO IOOMN Oi COO 

MCHMMMMMMM H « CO 

1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I +++++ 

CO-WM -tWUHTfO W>0 ^fOO M t*. t-* O* 0> f* 

co 0* O CO tJ-OoO MOO Tft^tOw co W W « 1010O 
O OoO 00 00 00 r»oo t^ e-* r* r* t*o 10 't ^t « 



H CO *0 N O CO00 HNOiOWNH M O^O'tHO 
M O ''tO <* 0»NO NlONfOM lO lO^O >0 « Ifl 
00 00 NN r^O O t-O *0 ^O O *0 V)^-<Of0« 



W 
pi 

8 9 



WOO Tf Tj- M t* CO O ' 



■* T$"0 O »0 « 
■<* 0> ■* m t^00 O 

M W CO 



I I II I I + I I I I I I +4 

too rJ-00 m O CO CO 0. 10 OO -"t Tf « Oi « mO 

M 0>4m m O O CO 00 mvO m lOCO O *0 **- co O 
00 t^vO t-O *0 "tO V5 ifl lO lO lO (O N M 



O (ONION! 



O -^-00 00 M lO M00 



> r^oooo »oo0 



• M 0»NO t».vO CO M 10O CO O O 



0> OOOO cO^cOiOTtOOM cOtJ- 
•**■ ^O lO^NOts't OO O'NO 

o> 000 00 CO *-o t-* r-^o t-.o o 10 



^t-o o o 
IO ^ « 6 M d 

it <0 CO M 



O OOOOOCOO i/^OO *00 



ii-)00 00 »0 O 



■< CO ■■+ t*-00 ci CO CO <00 



"^ O U">*0 MMO t-*-0 cO lO C 



t CO CO O m r-O) O 



I I l 



I I I I + I ++ 



M M Tf COO vj^O O O "*■ t^vO O (ONiOH 1 

O'CO viO N f* lOOO t"-« rfO m O.Oi*Ot 
O 1 0> Ox 0> O'CO OOOOOOCOCOCOOO J>. 10 ^1" i/l < 



I O CO O OiiOOOOCO c^Tj-Tj-TtOt^* O*00 CO o 



m o O O 00 00 O100 r-co r-*. 1 



■ ■O MOO O CO O O OiQ»Onm 



o o o>oo 



OOOMMOOMOOMMMt^OMCO^J-lO COO 00 

O O 00 o>00 1000 m c^ « w o r^so r-- O 100O t> n 

O O OiOQO>OOOiOiOi 0>00 CO NNMOH 



OO CO ■"* < 



r*» M o» o»o CO^O NM COO 00 o 
O O O* O 000 00 *0 ir>\0 « co 



tO tJ" 100 t^CO 00 H « «■* wo t^oo o o 



70 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

standards. The entries in the first column under each of the first 
four sections of the table represent the total number of pupils in 
the sixth grade who were able to read the respective paragraphs 
successfully, and the entries in the second column in each case 
represent the percentage of successful readings. The entries in 
the first column under "Sixth Grade, All Standards" represent the 
sum of all the successes per paragraph for all standards. The 
entries in the first column under "All Grades, All Standards" rep- 
resent the sum of the separate successes per paragraph for all grades 
and all standards. 

Scaling the paragraphs. — The method used in scaling the para- 
graphs was the same as that followed by Buckingham (1913) in 
scaling the words of his spelling scale. For the purpose of this 
report a special study is made of the sixth grade, inasmuch as more 

pupils were tested in this grade 
than in any other. The rela- 
tive difficulty of each of the 
paragraphs for the sixth grade 

upon the basis of the scoring 
Diagram IV. — "Normal surface of . _ , . .. 

frequency" (after Buckingham). b y Standard I was determined 

as follows: Assuming that the 
distribution of the 216 sixth-grade pupils represents a normal- 
frequency distribution, a paragraph read by 100 per cent of the 
pupils would present no noticeable difficulty to that grade. The 
ability of all the pupils would be greater than the ability required 
to read it, and the entire area of the frequency surface would 
lie to the right of the position of the paragraphs. For a detailed 
discussion of the theory supporting this method see Thorndike's 
Mental and Social Measurements, chap. xiii. In Diagram IV, 
if OP represents probable error (or quartile deviation), paragraphs 
read correctly by all pupils tested would be located theoretically at 
an indefinite distance to the left of the point O, which we assume 
to be five or six times the distance OP. Table XII shows that the 
first two paragraphs had no difficulty for the sixth grade. Para- 
graph 3 was read successfully by 98.6 per cent of the pupils as 
scored by Standard I. This paragraph, according to our theory, 
would be located at a point K, since a vertical at this point cuts off 




VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 71 

1 . 4 per cent of the area of the entire frequency surface. By means 
of tables prepared for this purpose (Buckingham, Spelling Ability: 
Its Measurement and Distribution, p. 35) we find K to be located 
at a distance from equal to 3 . 26 times OP. In a similar manner 
we find that a paragraph read by 50 per cent of the pupils would 
be located at 0, and one read by o per cent of the class would be 
located 5+ P.E. to the right of point O. 

In Table XII the section headed "Sixth Grade, Standard I" 
gives the number and percentage of pupils reading each paragraph 
successfully, and also expresses the percentages in terms of P.E. 
according to the method described above. A negative sign pre- 
cedes P.E. in the case of all paragraphs located to the left of point O. 
For illustration, —3.26 P.E. means that paragraph 3 is located 
3 . 26 times P.E. to the left of 0; +2 . 86 P.E. means that paragraph 
20 is located 2 . 86 times P.E. to the right of point O. In a similar 
way the location of each paragraph for Standards II, III, and IV 
was determined. The data of this table, together with the corre- 
sponding figures in Diagram V, afford a basis for calculating the 
relative difficulty of the various paragraphs as determined by each 
of the four standards of grading. The facts shown are (1) that, 
although there are slight variations, the relative difficulty of the 
paragraphs is remarkably similar, and (2) that the four standards 
of scoring increase quite regularly in severity from the first to the 
fourth inclusive. 

Since these standards range in severity from very liberal scoring 
to very severe scoring, it seemed best at the outset to base con- 
clusions upon the results of all the gradings rather than upon the 
results of any one. Hence the data for the four standards were 
averaged and the relative difficulty of each of the paragraphs deter- 
mined upon that basis. The results are tabulated in Table XII 
and represented graphically in Diagram V. It is interesting to 
note that the order of difficulty as revealed by this distribution is 
slightly different, except in three cases, from the proposed order. 

While the scaling of the paragraphs upon the basis of data from 
the sixth grade alone defines the relative difficulty of the paragraphs 
for the pupils of that grade, additional steps are necessary to secure 
the best distribution for all of the grades. To this end the data 



72 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 




a 



yj 



aJ 



%■ 



^5 



T «- -a 






<tt 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 73 

for all the grades were combined and the paragraphs scaled anew. 
The results are tabulated in Table XII and represented graphically 
in Diagram V. As compared with the results for the " Sixth Grade, 
All Standards, " it is evident that the paragraphs at the lower end 
of the scale are much more clearly differentiated. We should expect 
this, since these paragraphs present relatively greater difficulty to 
the pupils of the lower grades than to those of the higher grades. 

ORGANIZATION OF THE SECOND SERIES OE PARAGRAPHS 

The results of the initial study showed that the paragraphs were 
by no means ideally distributed as to difficulty. Furthermore, a 
test composed of twenty paragraphs proved to be too long for prac- 
tical use. Hence it was decided to reduce the number of paragraphs 
to ten or twelve. Accordingly, paragraphs 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 14, 15, 17, 
18, and 19 were chosen because they represented a series in which, 
with one or two exceptions, there were distinct and nearly equal 
steps of difference. The steps of difference between these para- 
graphs, were determined by calculating the intervals between the 
locations of the paragraphs from the data given in the right-hand 
column of Table XII. These steps of difference are represented 
by the following numbers in parentheses: i-(42)-2-(5o)-4-(37)- 
5-(43>-9-(53)-i4-(37)-i5-(32)-i7-(56)-i8-(ii3)-i9. It is appar- 
ent that the step of difference in difficulty between paragraphs 18 
and 19 was too large. In addition, the results of the study up to 
this point had revealed the fact that it would be necessary to 
include a paragraph in the series which was easier than any 
which had thus far been used. It was therefore decided to intro- 
duce a new paragraph at each of these points. 

The method employed to secure paragraphs for these points was 
as follows: From a series of sixty paragraphs the writer chose 
several which seemed somewhat easier than paragraph 1 of the 
initial series and several which seemed equal in difficulty to one 
which would fit in between paragraphs 18 and 19. These para- 
graphs, together with a copy of the initial series of paragraphs, 
were then given to a graduate class in experimental education with 
the following directions: "Select from the paragraphs printed on 
sheet I two paragraphs for oral reading which seem as much easier 



74 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



than paragraph i of the initial series as paragraph i is easier than 
paragraph 2. In addition, select two paragraphs from sheet II 
which seem in difficulty for oral reading to lie midway between 
paragraphs 18 and 19 on the printed scale." From the thirty 
reports submitted a selection was made for each point on the scale 
for which a paragraph was desired. The twelve paragraphs were 
arranged in the following order for the second series of tests: new 
paragraph-i-2-4-5-9-i4-i5-i7~i8-new paragraph-19. 

The newly organized reading test was now given to about 2,000 
pupils in 23 schools in Illinois. These schools included three coun- 
try schools, two one-roOm village schools, four two-room village 
schools, six village schools of three or more rooms, three representa- 
tive ward schools of a city of 40,000, pupils from four homes for 
friendless children in Chicago, and the Elementary School of the 
University of Chicago. The schools from the city of 40,000 
included one school from the very best portion of the city, one 
school from a foreign industrial section, and one school for negroes. 
The tests were all given individually by the writer, assisted by his 
sister, Miss Lilian Gray. 

After the pupils of these schools had been tested, the relative 
difficulty of the paragraphs was again determined by the method 
used in the initial study. The P.E. distribution of the paragraphs 
for "All Grades, All Standards" was as follows: 





Paragraphs 




New 


1 


2 


4 


S 


9 


14 


IS 


17 


18 


New 


19 


P.E... 


— O. 24 


-0.4 


— 0.46 


— O. 22 


—0.06 


O.32 


O.67 


I. OO 


I.30 


i-74 


2-5 


3-2 



It is evident from this distribution that the first two paragraphs 
of the series had not been well selected for the purpose. It was 
therefore decided to drop these from the series and to substitute 
easier paragraphs in their places. 



ORGANIZATION AND STANDARDIZATION OF THE THIRD SERIES 
OF PARAGRAPHS 

The method adopted in order to secure the simpler paragraphs 
was as follows : A series of very simple paragraphs was selected by 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 75 

teachers in the Elementary School of the University of Chicago. 
From these the writer selected five, to which were added paragraphs 
2 and 4 of the second series. This new series was given to 50 first- 
and second-grade pupils. From the results of these tests two para- 
graphs were chosen which were substituted for the two discarded 
paragraphs. The paragraphs of the series were now renumbered in 
order of difficulty from 1 to 12, and they were printed as they appear 
in chap, hi of this report. This series of paragraphs has been used 
in the various studies reported in chaps, vi and vii. 

School population tested as basis for final distribution of para- 
graphs. — The data upon which the final distribution of the para- 
graphs was based were secured from tests given to 3,299 pupils. 
Of this number 1,106 pupils were from 23 schools of Illinois and 
2,193 pupils were from 44 schools of Cleveland. The 23 schools of 
Illinois are described in some detail on p. 74, and the Cleveland 
schools are described on p. 119. The cosmopolitan character of 
the urban and rural districts tested makes it unlikely that results 
of a materially different character would have been obtained from 
more widely selected regions. 

An important difference exists in the data used from the Illinois 
schools as compared with the data used from the Cleveland schools. 
As was pointed out on p. 74, it was determined after testing about 
2,000 Illinois pupils that the first two paragraphs of the reading test 
were unsatisfactory. Two paragraphs were subsequently substi- 
tuted in their places. This change in paragraphs rendered certain 
records secured in Illinois invalid for purposes of later compari- 
son. Upon careful examination of individual records it was decided 
to drop from present consideration all first- and second-grade 
records, of which there was a very large number. This reduced the 
number of Illinois cases to 1,106. These data, together with 
the Cleveland records, were combined for the purpose of scaling 
the paragraphs. All of the pupils, 3,299 in number, read all of the 
paragraphs of the final series from 3 to 12 inclusive. The Cleve- 
land pupils, 2,193 m number, read all of the paragraphs, including 
the first two. In grouping the data to determine the relative diffi- 
culty of the paragraphs, all the data were used in connection with 
the paragraphs from the third to the twelfth inclusive, while only 



76 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

the Cleveland data were used to determine the relative difficulty 
of the first three paragraphs. The effect which this combination 
of data had upon the final results will be discussed in detail later. 

Scoring the results. — It was pointed out in chap, iii that the 
scoring of results in arithmetic or spelling tests is a relatively simple 
problem, since one takes a perfect record as the standard for suc- 
cess. Reading, on the other hand, presents a far more difficult 
problem, for, should the standard of perfect accuracy be adopted, 
many of our best readers would fail on the simplest paragraphs. 
It therefore became necessary for the purposes of this study to 
adopt an arbitrary standard, or set of standards, which would put 
the dividing line between success and failure below the standard 
of perfect accuracy. Since up to this time no such standards had 
been devised, it was necessary to study certain facts in regard to 
the reading of pupils in order to determine appropriate standards. 

The first fact is that when a pupil reads a series of paragraphs 
of equal length but of increasing difficulty, the time required to 
read each of the successive paragraphs increases, although no errors 
are made in the reading. The record of pupil No. i in Table VI, 
p. 38, illustrates this point. Hence the time required, as well as 
the number of errors, is a measure of the difficulty of a paragraph 
for grade pupils. In addition, a careful study of reading records 
shows that only the better readers will read a paragraph of 50 
words in less than 20 seconds, while only the poorer portion of the 
class requires more than 40 seconds. The records in Table VI 
show for the cases tabulated the validity of the statement. 

Again, only the better readers make less than two errors in 
reading the given paragraph, while only the poorer readers make 
as many as five or more errors. Hence it is evident that between 
the limits which are described above, a set of standards could be 
devised of varying degrees of severity. The following standards 
represent a possible series of increasing severity: Only those 
readings are checked as failures which require — 

(a) 40 or more seconds with five or more errors; 

(b) 30 or more seconds with four or more errors; 

(c) 25 or more seconds with three or more errors, or 

(d) 20 or more seconds with two or more errors. 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 77 

An application of these standards to the records of pupils 
showed that the rapid, careless reader received an unfair advantage 
under the conditions outlined in a, b, c, and d. After considerable 
experimenting it was found that a large percentage of such cases 
could be penalized by the following additions to the conditions men- 
tioned above: Those readings are checked as failures — 

(a) which require less than 40 seconds, but make seven or more errors; 

(b) which require less than 30 seconds, but make five or more errors; 

(c) which require less than 25 seconds, but make four or more errors, or 

(d) which require less than 20 seconds, but make three or more errors. 

One additional provision was necessary to meet all the condi- 
tions. Wherever the final paragraphs of the scale were not read 
because the pupil had failed on previous paragraphs, such para- 
graphs were counted as failures. The four possible standards with 
all the provisions for each, arranged in the order of increasing 
severity, are as follows: A record is checked as a failure if — 

A. It is not read because of previous failures. 

It is read in 40 or more seconds with five or more errors. 
It is read in less than 40 seconds with seven or more errors. 

B. It is not read because of previous failures. 

It is read in 30 or more seconds with four or more errors. 
It is read in less than 30 seconds with five or more errors. 

C. It is not read because of previous failures. 

It is read in 25 or more seconds with three or more errors. 
It is read in less than 25 seconds with four or more errors. 

D. It is not read because of previous failures. 

It is read in 20 or more seconds with two or more errors. 
It is read in less than 20 seconds with three or more errors. 

The preliminary use of these standards revealed three significant 
points. The first was that these standards increase in severity by 
practically equal steps, as shown in Diagram V, p. 72. This 
means that if the average of the four standards should be used, 
undue weight would not be given to the results secured by the use 
of any one standard. In the second place, it was found that if the 
scoring was done by one standard alone, two or three paragraphs 
of the series would appear to be of equal difficulty, while the results 
secured through the use of all four standards revealed a distinct 
gradation in the difficulty of the paragraphs. In this way it was 



78 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

found that the use of all four standards gave a refinement to the 
results which the use of no single standard could secure. This was 
particularly true in cases where the groups of pupils involved were 
small. Because the groups involved in this study were relatively 
small in many cases and because a high degree of accuracy was 
essential, the average of the four scorings was adopted as the 
method for this study. 

According to the method of scoring just described, the relative 
importance of the various types of errors is not considered. The 
question therefore arises concerning the validity of counting all 
errors as of equal importance. During the summer of 1914 a great 
deal of attention was given to this problem to determine the possi- 
bility of weighting the errors satisfactorily. The following set of 
directions was prepared and copies were given to 150 advanced 
students in education, most of whom were teachers and supervisors 
of experience. Each was requested to record, before returning the 
copy, his name, the position he last held or was holding at the 
present time, and his criticism concerning this method of weighting 
errors as a basis for determining the relative difficulty of paragraphs 
and the amount of achievement of pupils. 

Directions for Grading Reading Errors 

1. The following paragraph was given to a large number of pupils of the 
elementary school, third to eighth grades inclusive, to read aloud as they would 
read in a regular reading recitation. Each pupil was heard alone. 

The sun pierced into my* large windows. It was the opening of October, 

and the A sky was^ofja dazzling blue. I looked out of my window Cand) down 
the street. The white houseQof the long, straight street were(^nost painful 

to the eyes. The clear atmosphere allowed full play to^he. sun^^prightness. 

2. Errors of the following types were made and recorded: 

a) Gross errors. 

10 The word "atmosphere" was so poorly pronounced that it was evi- 

dent that the pupil had no control over the word. 

b) Minor errors within a word. 

The word "pierced" was divided into two syllables, thus: "pierced." 
The letter a in "dazzling" was pronounced long a. 
The word "houses" was pronounced "house." 
The word "almost" was pronounced "most." 
The letter in "allowed" was pronounced long 0. 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 79 

c) Substitution of one word for another. 
The word "my" was pronounced "many." 

d) Insertions. 

The word "clear" was inserted between "the" and "sky." 

e) Omissions. 

"Of" in the expression "of a dazzling blue" was omitted. 

"And" in the expression "and down the street" was omitted. 
/) Repetitions. 

Groups of words such as "to the sun's" were repeated by several 

of the readers. 
3. I wish to make a scale for grading oral- reading ability of pupils. At this 
time I am considering merely the mechanical difficulties, such as are mentioned 
above. In order to determine the difficulty of each paragraph, I should know 
the relative importance of each of the types of errors mentioned. Suppose 
for convenience we say that a pupil who makes a gross error, that is, entirely 
mispronounces a word, should have 10 points subtracted from his grade. How 
much would you deduct for each of the other errors listed ? Use integers either 
above or below ten according to the relative importance of the errors; do not 
use fractions if you can possibly avoid using them. Place the number indi- 
cating the relative importance of the errors to the left side of the sheet in a 
column with 10. Write a number for each error listed. 

From the returns which were handed in 40 were chosen, the 
writers of which had had experience which qualified them to be 
experts in problems of reading. The list was composed largely of 
special reading teachers, primary and grade supervisors, normal- 
school training teachers, and superintendents who had given special 
attention to the problem of reading. The results tabulated from 
the 40 papers showed that whereas gross errors were given a grade 
of 10 points according to directions, the grade of greatest frequency 
for all other types of errors was 5 in each case. Similar results had 
been secured from 20 graduate students at Teachers College during 
the winter of 1913-14. Upon the basis of counting all gross errors as 
10 points and each error of any other type as equal to 5, the rela- 
tive difficulty of the paragraphs of series 3 was determined. 
A comparison of the results secured by this method with those 
given on p. 77 revealed the fact that there was very little 
difference between the results secured by the two methods. 
Because the method of scoring by weighting the errors was so 
laborious the adopted method was chosen as the more practical 
and usable. 



80 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

The criticisms made by the teachers who weighted the errors 
show the hopelessness of adopting any single series of weightings 
which would satisfy the conditions for all grades and which would 
be satisfactory to all teachers. Fifteen out of the forty teachers 
stated that "the errors must be weighted for each grade, since age 
and training should be considered. For illustration, 'allowed' is 
a more serious error in the eighth grade than in the fourth." Other 
teachers said, "Before errors can be weighted the circumstances 
under which each is made must be known, such as carelessness, 
total inability, weakness in eye co-ordination, and lack of knowledge 
and training." Still others stated that " the value of each mechani- 
cal error should be determined upon the basis of the influence which 
it has upon the thought of the paragraph, and this will vary with 
the pupils and with the subject-matter which is read." 

Summary of data used in scaling the paragraphs. — The records 
for all the pupils from Cleveland and Illinois were scored by the 
method previously described, and the tabulations were made in 
terms of the number of successful readings per paragraph as 
described in Table VII. Since the paragraphs of the scale increase 
in difficulty, it is natural to think of increasing numbers of failures 
as we advance from one paragraph to the next. For the purpose of 
clearness in this description of the final scaling of the paragraphs 
increasing difficulty will be expressed by increasing numbers of 
failures. The average number of failures for a given grade was 
found by subtracting the average number of successes for each 
paragraph from the number of pupils in a grade. If, in a grade of 
20 pupils, there are 15 successes on a given paragraph, it is evident 
that the number of failures is 5. In this way the total number of 
failures per grade for each paragraph was found. 

Table XIII contains a record of failures by grades for 3,299 
pupils. The entries in Section A refer to the average number of 
failures for pupils of Cleveland for paragraphs 1, 2, and 3. The 
entries in Section B refer to the average number of failures for 
pupils of Cleveland and Illinois for paragraphs 3, 4, 5, etc. 

In scaling paragraphs it is necessary to have the number of 
failures for each paragraph expressed on a percentage basis. 
Table XIV gives the percentages of failures by grades for each 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 



81 



paragraph and is derived by changing the entries in Table XIII to 
a percentage basis. 

Method of scaling the paragraphs. — The method employed at this 
time in determining the steps of difference between successive para- 
graphs was based on the assumption that reading ability conforms 
in general to what is known as normal distribution. The same 

TABLE XIII 

Number of Failures by Grades 



section A 



Grade 


No. of Cases 


Paragraphs 


1 


2 


3 


I 


33° 
329 
332 
323 
242 
216 
228 
193 


171 
46 
18 
IO 

5 
4 
4 

1 


248 

"5 

7i 

44 

21 

13 

10 

7 


289 
147 
9i 
63 
37 
25 
16 

13 


II 

in 

rv 


v 


VI 


VII 

VIII 



SECTION B 



Grade 


No. of Cases 










Paragraphs 










3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


I 


33° 
329 
518 
574 
436 
37o 
384 
358 


289 

147 
223 
177 
81 
46 
31 
23 


310 

184 

270 

228 

108 

44 

38 

25 


320 
213 
307 

27s 

129 

65 

S3 
38 


326 
260 
37° 
345 
189 
103 
80 
53 


329 
302 

451 
409 
242 
126 
103 
58 


33° 
323 
491 
481 
312 
183 
143 
90 


33° 
322 

480 

487 
321 
205 
170 
115 


330 
328 
507 
524 
367 
261 

235 
186 


330 
329 
516 

569 
422 
326 

3 J 7 
241 


330 
329 
517 
572 
43i 
35o 
346 
280 


II 


Ill 

IV 

V 


VI 

VII 

VIII 



assumption was made in the preceding attempts to find the relative 
difficulty of the paragraphs. The explanation which follows differs 
from the preceding, however, because a slightly different method 
of distributing the paragraphs was introduced. Furthermore, 
the description is given in more detail at this point for the sake of 
clearness. Diagram VI and the paragraphs which explain it are 



82 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 



adapted directly from Dr. L. P. Ayres's discussion of spelling 
ability and the normal distribution, A Measuring Scale for Ability 
in Spelling, pp. 25-30. 

Let us suppose that the diagram represents the distribution of 
reading ability among a large number of third-grade children. The 
area inclosed between the curve and the base line represents all the 

TABLE XIV 

Percentage of Failures by Grades 



section A 



Grade 


Paragraphs 


1 


2 


3 


I 


51.82 
13.98 

5 -42 
3.10 
2.07 
1.85 

i-75 
•52 


75 IC 


87.58 
44.68 
27.41 
19 -5° 
15-29 
n-57 
7.02 
6.74 


II 

Ill 


34 
21 

13 

8 
6 
4 
3 


95 
39 
62 
68 
02 
39 
63 


IV 


V 

VI 


VII 

VIII 





SECTION B 



Grade 



Paragraphs 



10 



I.... 
II... 
III.. 

IV... 

v.... 

VI... 

VII.. 
VIII. 



87. 

44- 
43- 
3°- 
18. 



58 


93 


68 


55 


05 


52 


84 


39 


58 


24 


43 


11 


07 


9 


42 


6 



90 



99.70 
91.79 
87.07 
71-25 

55-5° 
34 05 
26.82 
16. 20 



100 

97 

92 
84 
73 

55 
44 
32 



100 
99 
97 
91 
84 
70 
61 
5i 



100.00 

100.00 

99.61 

99 13 
96.79 
88.11 

82.55 
67.32 



100.00 
100.00 
99.81 
99-65 
98.85 
94-59 
90.10 
78.21 



children ranged according to reading ability. At the extreme left 
the curve is very near the base, which indicates the small number of 
very poor readers. In the middle the curve is distant from the 
base, representing the large proportion of medium readers. At the 
right the curve is again near the base, representing the small pro- 
portion of excellent readers. The median line at point 100 repre- 
sents average ability. 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 83 

The dotted vertical lines at points 80 and 120 include between 
them 50 per cent of all the pupils. The dotted horizontal line 
between the median and the vertical line at 80 marks a distance 
known as "Probable Error" (P.E.), an important constant unit in 
calculations dealing with normal distributions. It is equal to half 
the distance on the horizontal line between 80 and 120. In this 
study this unit has been chosen as the basis of the measurements 
along the base line. If now we lay out on the base line to the right 
and left of the median distances equal to the P.E. distance, we shall 
have to the left of the median points marked at 80, 60, 40, 20, and o, 
and to the right points marked at 120, 140, 160, 180, and 200. 

In thus dividing the base into 10 equal parts, each part equal 
to the P.E. distance, and calling the extremes o and 200, we are 
taking liberties with the curve of normal distribution, for the base 
and the curve do not actually meet at these points. In theory the 
two lines could be indefi- 
nitely extended, always 
getting nearer together but 
never touching. Further- — 

more, about 99 . 96 per cent DlAGRAM V I.-"Surface of normal distribution" 
of all cases lie to the right 

of the point indicated as o and some four-hundredths of 1 per cent 
of them lie to the left. For the purpose of the present study it 
has been considered sufficiently accurate to call the point o and 
assume that all cases lie to the right. A corresponding assump- 
tion is made with respect to the 200 point at the right end of 
the line. 

On the basis of these assumptions, we find that the area of the 
curve beginning at the left and extending as far as the vertical 
line at the point 20 is 0.35 per cent of the total. Between this line 
and the one at 40 are 1.80 per cent of the cases, making a total 
to this point of 2.15 per cent. The points 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 
160, 180, and 200 include from the beginning 8.87 per cent, 25 per 
cent, 50 per cent, 75 per cent, 91 . 13 per cent, 97 . 85 per cent, 99.65 
per cent, and 99.96 per cent, respectively, of all the cases. From 
the table of values of the normal probability integral presented by 
Buckingham, Spelling Ability — Its Measurement and Distribution, 



so fo 60 go 100 IZO IW 160 /So Zoo 



84 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

p. 35, a table of values was derived which shows the percentage of 
cases lying to the left of a vertical line drawn at each one of the 
200 points marked off on the base line of our normal curve. These 
values are presented in Table XV. 

This table differs from Buckingham's in the following ways: 
Buckingham assumed that the total area of the surface of frequency 
is 10,000. The extremes of the surface of frequencies were taken 
as —6 P.E. and +6 P.E. The base line of the frequency curve was 
divided into 1 20 equal divisions on either side of the median. The 
number of cases was then calculated which lie between the median 
and a vertical erected at each one of the 1 20 equal divisions. Since 
the median was adopted as the basis for all calculations, all per- 
centages had to be expressed in terms of percentages above or 
below 50 per cent before the desired point on the base line could 
be found. 

Table XV assumes that the total area of the surface of frequency 
is 10,000. Minus 5 P.E. is taken as zero on the base line and the 
values are computed in 200 units to +5 P.E. This rearrange- 
ment of the table leads to great economy of time. Having given 
the percentage of a total number of cases, one can determine 
quickly from the table at what point along the base line a vertical 
line must be drawn to include between it and the zero point the 
given percentage of cases. 

Now, if we imagine the normal curve of Diagram VI as repre- 
senting 332 typical third-grade children (Table XIII), ranked, 
according to reading ability, with the poorest at the left and the 
rest in order of ability to the right, we can determine the relative 
positions of the paragraphs along a straight line. Now, 5 . 42 per 
cent of the third-grade pupils (Table XIV) failed on paragraph 1. 
By looking at Table XV we find that the nearest percentage to 
5 .42 given in the table is 5 . 65 per cent. The base-line point corre- 
sponding to this percentage is 53. This means that a vertical line 
erected on the base line at point 53 will have approximately 5 . 42 
per cent of the cases of the normal distribution to the left of it. 
We therefore adopt point 53 as the location for paragraph 1. In 
a similar way it is found that the location of paragraphs 2 and 3 for 
the same group are at points 76 and 82. The location for each of 
the paragraphs for each of the grades is presented in Table XVI. 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 



85 



TABLE XV 
Values of the Normal Probability Integral Corresponding to Values of P.E. 
(Total area of the surface of frequency taken as 10,000. Minus 5 P.E. taken as 
zero on the base line and the values computed in 200 units to +5 P.E.) 



Units on 
Base Line 



Percentage 
of Cases 



Units on 
Base Line 



Percentage 
of Cases 



Units on 
Base Line 



Percentage 
of Cases 



Units on 
Base Line 



Percentage 
of Cases 



o 
I 
2 

3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
18 

19 

20 
21 
22 

23 
24 
25 
26 

27 
28 

29 
30 
3i 

32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
33 
39 
40 

4i 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
48 

49 
50 



0.04 
0.04 
0.05 
0.05 
0.06 
0.07 
0.08 
0.09 
o. 10 
0.11 

O. 12 
O.I3 

O.I5 
O.I7 

0. 19 

O. 21 
O.23 

o. 26 
0.29 
0.32 
0.35 
039 
0.43 
0.47 
0.52 

0.57 
0.63 
0.69 
0.76 

0.83 

0.91 
1. 00 
1.09 

1. 19 
1.30 

1.42 

1.55 

1.69 

1.83 

1.98 
2.15 

2-33 
2.52 

2-73 
2-95 
3-i8 
3-43 
3-69 
3-98 
4.27 

4-59 



5i 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 

63 
64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 
70 

7i 
72 

73 

74 
75 
76 

77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 

83 
84 

85 
86 

87 

88 
S 9 
90 

91 
92 

93 
94 
95 
96 

97 

98 

99 

100 



4.92 
5-28 

5-65 
6.04 
6.46 
6.89 
7-35 
7.83 
8.34 
8.87 

9-43 
10.00 
10.61 
11. 24 
11.89 
12.58 
13.29 

i4-°3 

14.79 

15-59 
16.40 

1725 
18.12 

i9°3 
19.96 
20.92 
21.90 
22.91 

23-94 
25.00 
26.08 
27.19 
28.32 
29.47 
30-65 
31-84 
33 05 
34- 29 
35-53 
36.79 
38.07 

39-37 
40.67 
41.98 
43 -30 
44.64 
45-97 
47-31 
48.65 
50.00 



101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
no. 
III. 

112. 

ii3- 

114. 

"5- 
116. 
117. 
118. 
119. 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 
124. 
125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
130. 

131- 
132. 

133- 
134- 
135- 
136. 

137- 
138. 

139- 
140. 
141. 
142. 

143- 

144. 

145- 
146. 

147- 
148. 
149. 
150. 



51-35 
52.69 

54 03 
55-36 
56.70 
58.02 

59-33 
60.63 
61.93 
63.21 
64-47 
65-7I 
66.95 
68.16 
69-35 
70.53 
71.68 
72.81 
73-92 
75.00 
76.06 
77.09 
78.10 
79.08 
80.04 
80.97 
81.88 

82.75 
83.60 
84.41 
85.21 

8597 
86.71 
87.42 
88.11 
88.76 

89-39 
90.00 

90.57 
9I-I3 
91.66 
92.17 
92.65 
93-n 
93-54 
93-96 
94-35 
94.72 
95. oS 
95-41 



151 
152 
153 
154 
155 
156 
157 
158 
159 
160 
161 
162 
163 
164 
165 
166 
167 
168 
169 
170 
171 
172 

173 
174 

175 
176. 
177 
178 
179 
180 
181 
182 

183 
184 

185 

186 
187 
188 
189 
190 
191 
192 

193 

194 

195 
196 
197 
198 
199 
200 



86 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



Diagram VII presents the facts of Table XVI in graphical form. 
The diagram consists of eight horizontal lines, each 200 units in 
length, which may be thought of as the base lines of the probability- 
curves for the eight grades. The circles on the horizontal line 
for each grade represent the locations of paragraphs 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 
and 12 in order. The locations of paragraphs 4 and 9 



10, 11, 



TALBE XVI 

Location of Each Paragraph of the Scale 
for Each Grade 

section a 



Grade 


Paragraphs 


1 


2 


3 


I 


IOI 

68 

52 
45 
40 

38 

37 
24 


120 
89 
76 
67 
60 
54 
49 
47 


134 
96 
82 


II 


III.... 


IV 


75 
70 


V 


VI 


65 
56 
56 


VII 


VIII 





SECTION b 



Grade 


Paragraphs 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


I 


134 
96 

95 
85 
73 
66 
58 
55 


146 
104 

102 
92 
80 

65 
62 

56 


156 

III 

107 

98 
84 

72 

68 
63 


167 

124 

117 

108 

95 

83 

76 

69 


182 
141 

134 

117 

104 

88 

82 

7i 


200 
162 
148 
129 
117 
100 
90 
80 


200 
160 
143 
131 
119 
104 
96 

86 


200 
182 
160 
140 
130 
116 
108 

IOI 


200 
200 
179 
170 
155 
135 
128 

113 




II 

Ill 

IV 

V 


200 
186 
180 
167 
148 
138 
123 


VI 

VII 

VIII 



are omitted from the diagram because these paragraphs overlap 
the locations of paragraphs 3 and 8, respectively, as shown in 
Table XVI. The dotted lines trace the locations of the various 
paragraphs from grade to grade. Table XVI shows that para- 
graph 3 was not located at exactly the same point on the base line 
in all cases for Sections A and B. This was due to the fact that 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 



87 



the percentage failing on paragraph 3 in these cases differed some- 
what. This difference in location is shown in the diagram by the 
shaded portion. 

The table presents in an interesting way the fact that the suc- 
cessive grades represent increasingly higher levels of attainment. 
This is shown by the tendency of the dotted lines to shift to the left 
from grade to grade. This tendency is particularly well represented 
in the case of paragraph 2. For this paragraph the progress is 
quite marked in the lower grades and less marked in the upper 



F/nt q 
Grade 



Second 
Grade 



Tiird 

Gra.de 



Foartk 
Gra.de 



Fifth. 
Gra.de 



SittA. 

Grad* 



Grade 



Eiahtk 

Gra.de 



-4 i 



i-6C 









' 1 



/ / 

4 <f- 



-4 ?- 



4 — i~4 — A- 



st j- 



1 1 
1 1 
1 1 



-ft -P- 



Diagram VII. — Location of the paragraphs of the scale on the base line of the 
probability-curve for each grade. 

grades, the shift from grade to grade forming a very smooth curve. 
It would be in harmony with natural expectation for all the curves 
to be equally regular. Although the curves for the various para- 
graphs do follow in general the curve for paragraph 2, there are 
some puzzling exceptions. A number of the irregularities in the 
third grade and some of the irregularities in the more advanced 
grades can be explained by the presence of the shaded section of 
the diagram caused by combining the data from Cleveland and 
Illinois. The unusual location of paragraph 1 for the eighth grade 



88 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

may be explained as follows : Less than i per cent of the pupils in 
the eighth grade failed on paragraph i. This means that the 
location of the paragraph is on the base line near one end of the 
normal curve. Table XV shows that small differences in percent- 
ages make for large differences in location at the extremes of the 
normal curve. Since this is true, it is possible for the location of a 
paragraph to be unduly exaggerated in one direction or the other 
near the extremes of the curve. On the other hand, it is hard to 
explain why the location for paragraph i, Grade IV, is not in line 
with the location of the same paragraph for other grades. Simi- 
larly, it is hard to explain why the curves for paragraphs n and 12 
should be less regular than the curve for paragraph 10. It is par- 
ticularly difficult to explain why the step of difference between 
paragraphs 10 and 1 1 should be more marked in the fourth grade 
than it is in the fifth and sixth grades. A careful survey of the 
original data on this point fails to reveal a satisfactory answer. It 
is hoped that additional data will eliminate some of the irregularities 
which exist at present in the curves. 

The exact determination of the achievement in oral reading of 
a given group of pupils might demand that the exact steps of 
difference in difficulty between the various paragraphs and also that 
the shifts from grade to grade be used as they are represented in 
Diagram VII. Practical considerations demand, however, that 
some measuring scale be adopted, if possible, in which there 
are uniform steps of difference, and in which shifts from grade 
to grade are the same for all the paragraphs. In order to adopt 
such a measuring scale, the average steps of difference for all 
the grades between the successive paragraphs and the average 
shift of all the paragraphs from one grade to the next were found. 
The shaded portion of Diagram VII complicated our problem. The 
following method of calculation was adopted because it introduced 
the least error: In determining the steps of difference between 
paragraphs 2 and 3 and between paragraphs 3 and 5 the locations 
of paragraph 3, as determined by Group A and B, respectively, were 
used. In determining the shift from grade to grade, the midpoint 
between the two locations of paragraph 3 were used in the cases of 
Grades III-VIII, inclusive. 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 



89 



Finding the steps of difference in difficulty between paragraphs. — 
Thus far we have found the location of the paragraphs of the scale 
upon the base line of the normal frequency curve according to the 
percentage of pupils failing on each paragraph. The steps of differ- 
ence in difficulty between successive paragraphs can now be deter- 
mined by computing the number of points along the base line from 
one paragraph to the next. Table XVII presents these steps of 

TABLE XVII 

Steps of Difference from One Paragraph to the Next for Each Grade 











Paragraphs 








Grade 








































« 


2-3 


3-5 


5-6 


6-7 


7-8 


8-10 


10-11 


11-12 


I 


19 

21 


14 

7 
6 


22 


II 


IS 

17 

17 

9 

9 










II 


IS 
12 


13 
IO 


21 


20 






in 


24 

22 


14 
12 


12 


19 
30 

25 


7 
10 


IV 


8 


13 
II 


IO 


11 


v 


20 


10 


II 


13 


13 


12 


VI 


16 


11 


6 


II 


S 


12 


16 


19 


13 


VII 


12 


7 


10 


8 


6 


8 


18 


20 


IO 


VIII 


23 


9 


8 


6 


2 


9 


21 


12 


IO 



difference for each grade. Paragraphs 4 and 9 are omitted from 
this table because they overlap the location of adjacent paragraphs, 
as previously explained. Hence the entire steps from paragraphs 
3 to 5 and from paragraphs 8 to 10 are entered in the table. The 
table reads : For the first grade the step of difference between para- 
graphs 1 and 2 is equal to 19 points; between paragraphs 2 and 3, 
equal to 14 points, etc. 

Average steps of difference in difficulty. — The steps of difference 
between any two paragraphs vary somewhat from grade to grade. 
For convenience in measuring oral-reading achievement it is desir- 
able to adopt common steps of difference for all the grades. After 
a careful study of the average and median steps of difference for 
all the grades had been made, steps of difference were arbitrarily 
chosen as presented in Table XVIII. While these steps do slight 
violence to the facts in special cases, the total number of steps 
remains the same. It will be very clear later that steps of difference 
between paragraphs in tens or multiples of ten add greatly to 



90 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



convenience in the use of the scale when determining the oral- 
reading achievement of an individual or group. 

TABLE XVIII 

Steps of Difference in Difficulty between the 
Paragraphs of the Scale 



Step 


Average to Near- 
est Whole 
Number 


Median to Near- 
est Whole 
Number 


Step Arbitrarily- 
Adopted 


I- 2 

2-3 

3- S 

5-6 

6-7-.. 

7-8 

8-io 

io-ii 

11-12 


20 

9 

12 
IO 
IO 

13 
16 

21 
IO 


21 

9 

12 
II 

9 

12 

16 

20 
IO 


20 
IO 
IO 
IO 
IO 
IO 
20 
20 
IO 


Total . 


121 


120 


120 



Improvement from grade to grade. — Since the same paragraphs 
were used in testing the pupils of all grades, it was possible to com- 
pute the amount of improvement in reading from grade to grade. 
The method of finding the shift from grade to grade was as follows : 
The integers representing the location of each of the paragraphs 
(Table XVI) were added together for each grade. The increase in 

TABLE XIX 

Average Shift of the Scale in Difficulty from 
Grade to Grade 



Grades 


Average Shift 


Shift Arbitrarily 
Adopted 


I-II 


38 

12 
II 
II 
13 

7 
9 


40 

IO 


II-III 


III-IV 


IO 


rv-v 


IO 


v-vi 


IO 


VI-VII 


IO 


VII-VIII 


IO 







these sums from one grade to the next represented the total shift 
for all the paragraphs between the two grades. To find the average 
shift per paragraph this total increase was divided by the number 
of paragraphs. Table XIX presents the average shift per para- 
graph between each grade and the shifts finally adopted. 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 



91 



Steps of difference and shifts from grade to grade checked. — 
After the steps of difference in difficulty between the paragraphs 
and the shifts from grade to grade for the 3,299 Cleveland-Illinois 
pupils had been determined, 701 additional tests were given in Mis- 
soula, Montana, and at the Elementary School of the University of 

TABLE XX 

Steps of Difference in Difficulty between the 
Paragraphs of the Scale 



Step 


Average to 

Nearest Whole 

Number— 

3,299 Pupils 


Average to 

Nearest Whole 

Number — 

4,000 Pupils 


Adopted Steps 


1- 2 

2-3 

3-5 

5-6 

6-7 

7-8 

8-10 

IO-II 

11-12 


20 

9 
12 
10 
10 

13 
16 
21 
10 


19 

9 

12 

9 
10 

13 
17 
19 
12 


20 
IO 
10 
IO 
IO 
IO 

20 
20 
10 


Total 


121 


120 


120 



Chicago. When these records were combined with the Cleveland- 
Illinois records, the total number of records equaled 4,000. Upon 
the basis of 4,000 pupils the steps of difference between the para- 
graphs were found to be as shown in Table XX. 

TABLE XXI 

Average Shift from Grade to Grade 



Grade 


Average Shift — 
3,299 Pupils 


Average Shift — 
4,000 Pupils 


Shift Adopted 


I-II 


38 
12 
II 
II 
13 

7 
9 


38 
15 
13 

12 
II 

6 
8 


40 


II-III 

III-IV 

IV-V 


10 
10 
IO 


V-VI 


IO 


VI-VII 

VII-VIII 


IO 
IO 



The shifts from grade to grade were found to be as shown in 
Table XXI. 



9 2 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



The tables show that the addition of the 701 new records made 
but very little difference in the steps of difference and in the shifts 
from grade to grade. The differences indicated in the tables are 
in most cases larger than the real differences, since the averages 
entered in the tables are in terms of the nearest whole number. 
This is particularly true in the case of the steps of difference. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE MEASURING SCALE FOR ORAL READING 

Upon the basis of the steps of difference and the shifts from grade 
to grade just described a measuring scale for oral reading was devised 
and is presented in Table XXII. The numbers in the horizontal row 

TABLE XXII 

Measuring Scale for Oral Reading 



Grade 


3 
to 

7 


8 
to 
12 


13 
to 

17 


18 
to 

22 


23 
to 

27 


28 
to 

32 


33 
to 

37 


38 
to 

42 


43 
to 

47 


48 
to 

52 


53 
to 

57 


58 
to 
62 


63 
to 
67 


68 
to 
72 


73 
to 
77 


78 

to 

82 


83 
to 
87 


88 
to 
02 


93 
to 
97 


I 


5 


IO 


IS 


20 


' 25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 

1 

5 
6 

7 
8 

10 


60 

6 

7 
8 

10 

11 


65 
2 

7 
8 

10 

11 
12 


70 

3 
8 

10 

11 

12 


75 

5 

IO 

II 

12 


80 

6 
10 

11 
12 


85 
7 


90 


95 


II 














1 

2 
3 
5 
6 

7 


2 
3 
5 
6 

7 
8 


2 
3 
5 
6 

7 
8 


3 
5 
6 

7 
8 

10 




Ill 












I 

2 

3 
5 
6 


11 
12 


12 




IV 










1 

2 
3 

5 




v 








1 

2 
3 




VI 






1 
2 








VII..... 




I 










VIII 


1 



























above the table which increase by 5's to 100 represent the central 
points of 19 of the 20 divisions into which a 100-unit scale has been 
divided. The pair of figures above each number represents the 
limits of the divisions. Thus, the division indicated by 5 has 3 
and 7 for its limits. The entries in the table represent the para- 
graphs of the scale. Since this scale is constructed upon a 100- 
unit rather than a 200-unit base, the paragraphs are separated by 
distances comparable to one-half the adopted steps of difference 
presented in Table XVIII, and the shifts from grade to grade are 
comparable to one-half the adopted shifts presented in Table XIX. 
Thus, paragraphs 1 and 2, 8 and 10, and 10 and 11 are separated 
by 10 points on the scale, and all other paragraphs are separated 
from those adjacent to them by five points on the scale. The shift 
between the first and second grade is 20 points, and it is 5 points 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 93 

in each case between all other grades. As presented in the table, 
the measuring scale may be read as follows : Success by first-grade 
pupils on paragraph 1 is equivalent to an achievement of 55 points; 
success on paragraph 2 is equivalent to an achievement of 65 points, 
etc. Success on paragraph 1 by the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, 
seventh, and eighth grades is equivalent to 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 
and 5 points, respectively. Success on other paragraphs for the 
various grades may be read in a similar way. 

The location of paragraph 1 in Table XXII was determined as 
follows: Since 51.82 per cent of the first-grade pupils failed on 
paragraph 1, it was apparent that it presented from 50 to 55 per 
cent difficulty for first-grade pupils and hence should be located at 
point 50 or 55 on the scale. By reducing the locations of the para- 
graphs given in Table XVI to a 100-unit basis and applying them 
to various assumed locations of paragraph 1, such as 50, 55, etc., 
it was found that the location of paragraph 1 at point 55 did less 
violence to the facts in Table XVI than any other location. Accord- 
ing to this test, 34 cases out of 74 fell within the limits of the divisions 
indicated on the measuring scale; 32 were slightly above and 8 were 
slightly below. 

VALIDITY OF THE ADOPTED VALUES IN THE MEASURING 
SCALE FOR ORAL READING 

According to the method described on p. 44, the total scores were 
determined by using the adopted values for the successful reading 
of the paragraphs. In order to determine the extent to which a 
given score calculated upon the basis of the adopted values differs 
from the score calculated upon the basis of the real values, the 
scores of 2,193 Cleveland pupils were determined by both methods, 
and they are shown by grades in Table XXIII. 

The average difference between the two methods is 1 . 5 points, 
which is surprisingly small in view of the large number of adjust- 
ments which have been made in the scale. It is evident from the 
table that very little violence will be done in scoring large groups 
on the basis of the adopted values. 

To determine the influence which the methods of grading have 
upon the relative ranks of schools, the class scores were determined 



94 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



by both methods for 10 second-grade classes chosen at random, and 
they are presented in Table XXIV. 



TABLE XXIII 
Influence of Methods of Scoring on Total Score 





Grades 




I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Score by adopted 
values 

Score by real 
values 


3°-7 
28.3 


42.49 
42.09 


45-85 

45-44 


47.22 
46.00 


47.89 

46.96 


49.16 
47.00 


47-23 
46.30 


48.28 
44.40 


Difference .... 


2.4 


0.40 


0.41 


1.22 


0-93 


2. 16 


o-93 


3-88 



The table shows that for the cases considered there is no change 
in the relative ranks of the second-grade classes through the use of 
the two methods of scoring. It is possible that cases might occur 
in which the relative position of a class would be changed 
slightly by the method of grading. It is clear, however, that the 



TABLE XXIV 

Influence of Methods of Scoring on Relative Rank 



Score by adopted values 
Score by real values . . . 



Classes 



35 00 

34.80 



39.00 
39-4° 



40.90 
41-3° 



41. 10 
41.40 



44.40 
43-3° 



44-65 
45 - IO 



44-65 
45.80 



48.75 
47.00 



5°-55 
5i-4o 



55-05 
55-50 



changes would be infrequent and of no great consequence. Because 
the total scores for large groups are so nearly the same by both 
methods of grading and because the adopted values result in very 
few, if any, changes in the relative ranks of schools, there is strong 
evidence that the adopted scale measures with a high degree of 
accuracy. 

Method of scoring pupils who fail on paragraph 1. — According to 
the method of determining achievement scores, those pupils who fail 
on paragraph 1 are given no credit. This in a way assumes that 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 



95 



zero reading ability lies just below the reading ability required to 
read paragraph i successfully. We know that such an assumption 
is not correct, because many pupils who just fail according to our 
easiest standard would succeed in case the standard were one step 
more liberal. It is evident, therefore, that the adopted method of 
scoring will penalize the lower grades more heavily than it will the 
upper grades, since there are relatively more pupils in the lower 
grades who fail on paragraph i than there are in the upper grades. 
Theoretically the average score for each grade should be about 48. 
The extent to which the lower grades have been penalized is 
shown in the average scores for Cleveland which are recorded in 
Table XXIII. 

In order to determine the influence of giving to each pupil failing 
on paragraph 1 one-half the credit given to a pupil of the same grade 
who reads paragraph 1 successfully, the following method was 
employed : In the first grade all pupils failing on paragraph 1 were 
given a credit of 27^ points, in the second grade 17! points, in the 
third grade 15 points, etc. The scores for all the grades in Cleve- 
land were worked out on this basis and are compared in Table XXV 



TABLE XXV 
Influence of Giving One-Half Credit to Pupils Failing on Paragraph i 





Grade 




I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Adopted method 
One-half credit . . 


30-73 
43-45 


42-49 
44.96 


45-85 
46.88 


47-22 

47.87 


47.89 
48.09 


49.16 
49-33 


47-23 
47-30 


48.28 
48.29 



with the scores determined by the adopted method. It is evident 
from the figures in the table that a credit somewhat above one-half 
the adopted credit given for the successful reading of paragraph 1 
would be necessary in order to bring the score for each grade up 
to the theoretical level of 48. Since no single amount of credit 
which could be given to all pupils failing on paragraph 1 would 
truly represent the achievement of each pupil, the question arises as 
to the validity of accepting the zero basis as the most practical one 
for grading those who fail. If such a method of grading does not 



9 6 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



change the relative ranks of schools, we shall assume that for 
practical purposes the adopted method is sufficiently accurate. 
Table XXVI gives the relative position of the ten lowest first grades 

TABLE XXVI 

Influence of Methods of Scoring on Relative Ranks of Schools 



Ten Lowest 



Ten Highest 



School 



Adopted 
Method 



One-Half 



School 



Adopted 
Method 



One-Half 



Eagle 

Stanard 

Fullerton. . . . 

Case 

Tremont 

Quincy 

St. Clair 

Mt. Pleasant. 
Kentucky. . . . 
Sterling 



5-9° 
8.25 

14-45 
14.80 

15-55 

16.40 
18.40 
20.00 
20.60 
21 .60 



Kinsman 

Denison 

Hough ...... 

Addison 

Detroit 

"Waverley. . . , 

Willard 

Orchard 

Hodge 

"North Doan . 



37-65 
40.00 
40.00 

41-95 
44-30 
46.40 

47-So 
48.55 
49.80 

52-30 



•35 

• 70 
.00 

.85 
.20 

.65 

-75 
.10 

•95 

■85 



* Refers to displacements in ranks of schools. 

of Cleveland and the ten highest first grades when scored by the 
adopted method and when scored by the method which gives one- 
half credit to all those who fail on paragraph 1. 

A comparison of the results secured by the two methods of 
grading reveals but two displacements in the relative ranks of the 
schools. In the 24 first-grade groups of Cleveland which are not 
reported in this table, the total scores of which are separated by 
very small differences, there are only seven displacements. Upon 
the basis of these figures it seems fair to assume that very little 
injustice will be done to any one school as a result of using a method 
of grading which gives a zero score to all those failing on the first 
paragraph. 

LIMITATIONS OF THE SCALE 

From an objective point of view the scale measures the rate 
and accuracy with which a pupil recognizes words and sentences 
at sight. The quality of the reading is not measured directly. It 
has been pointed out, however, that there is general correlation 
between the achievement of a pupil as measured by this scale and 
his general reading efficiency as measured by the classroom teacher. 



VALIDITY OF THE ORAL-READING TEST 97 

Inasmuch as each pupil must be tested individually, away from 
the other members of his class, this reading scale has serious limita- 
tions as compared with tests which can be given to large numbers 
of pupils at the same time. When it is considered, however, that 
the teacher or supervisor is brought into very close contact with the 
successes and failures of each pupil and can study each individually, 
this administrative limitation proves to be a very great advantage 
because of the increased insight into problems of reading which the 
method affords. 

It has been pointed out in the foregoing discussion of the deriva- 
tion and validity of the oral-reading test that the average steps of 
difference between the paragraphs are not equal, and that the 
adopted values for scoring are at slight variance with the real 
values. In order to correct in part these limitations in the accuracy 
of the test, the following changes have been made: A new para- 
graph has been inserted between paragraphs 1 and 2. The word 
" beautiful" has been inserted in paragraph 3 to make it slightly 
more difficult. The word "constitutes" in paragraph 8 has been 
changed to the word "forms" to make the paragraph slightly easier. 
The word "approximately" has been inserted in paragraph 9 to 
make it slightly more difficult, and the paragraph has been restored 
to its original place in the test. In its revised form (see p. 46) the 
oral-reading test has been given to 4,066 pupils in Grand Rapids. 
The results show that the modifications listed above have improved 
the accuracy of the scale. There is still need for other changes. 
By making slight revisions from time to time in the paragraphs of 
the test it is hoped to derive a scale eventually which will increase 
by exactly equal steps of difference in difficulty from the easiest 
paragraph to the most difficult. 

Inasmuch as only one series of paragraphs has been derived by 
this study, the criticism may be offered that the test can be used 
only once in a given school. After having given the tests repeatedly 
to the same group of students for two years at intervals of four 
months, the writer believes that the test can be used effect- 
ively a number of times if an interval of three or four months 
occurs between each test. This is particularly true in the lower 
grades, where natural growth during a period of four months is 



98 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

sufficiently marked to enable a pupil to read paragraphs success- 
fully which presented difficulties during the preceding test. How- 
ever, in order to provide a greater variety of selections, the writer 
is at work at present upon a series of fifty paragraphs whose diffi- 
culty will be determined in terms of the difficulty of the paragraphs 
of the standard scale. With such a list at his disposal a superin- 
tendent could vary the test from time to time, thus removing the 
above-mentioned limitation. 

The method of scoring does not penalize the slow reader of the 
first grade sufficiently. For illustration, the pupil who reads the 
first paragraph in 40 seconds with one error receives the same 
score as the pupil who reads it in 20 seconds with one error. 
Evidently the second pupil mentioned possesses superior reading 
ability. In order to remedy this defect, it will be necessary to 
revise the method of scoring the records of first-grade pupils. 

Some of the better readers in the upper grades read all of the 
paragraphs of the oral-reading test with few or no errors. In such 
cases the scores cannot be considered as exact measures of oral- 
reading ability. 



CHAPTER V 

VALIDITY OF THE SILENT-READING TESTS AND STANDARDS 

Three closely related problems will be discussed in this chapter: 
(i) the preliminary study of silent reading which was made to 
determine the answers to certain problems relative to silent- 
reading tests; (2) the critical evaluation of the methods of testing 
which were adopted for this study; (3) the validity of the standards 
of achievement for speed and quality of silent reading for the various 
grades. 

THE PRELIMINARY STUDY OP SILENT READING 

One of the important purposes of this preliminary study was 
to determine the advisability of using a series of three selections 
of increasing difficulty for a silent-reading test, the easiest of which 
should be adapted to the interests and reading capacities of second- 
and third-grade pupils, the next selection adapted to fourth-, 
fifth-, and sixth-grade pupils, and the hardest selection adapted to 
seventh- and eighth-grade pupils. 

Accordingly, a number of selections were chosen for each of 
these three groups. Each selection was about 600 words in length. 
Selections were chosen in each case which, according to the judg- 
ment of the writer, were adapted to the interests and reading 
capacity of the average pupil in the group for which the choice was 
made. These selections were then read by a number of pupils in 
each grade. The pupils were asked to indicate the selections which 
they liked best. Almost without exception second- and third- 
grade pupils chose selections from the easiest group; fourth-, fifth-, 
and sixth-grade pupils chose selections from the group which was 
second in difficulty; and more often than not pupils in the seventh 
and eighth grades chose one of the more difficult selections. Of 
the selections which had been read by the pupils the three which 
were most frequently named in each group were chosen as the 
basis for further study. Of these selections it was desirable to 

99 



ioo STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

select that one from each group which would help to form a series 
increasing in difficulty by clearly defined steps of difference and 
which was best adapted to the reading capacity of the group for 
which it was intended. 

Each of the nine selections was carefully mimeographed on 
sheets of paper sixteen inches long. A set of ten questions was 
prepared for each selection. These questions were based on points 
of the subject-matter which were distributed at almost equal inter- 
vals throughout the first two-thirds of each selection. These selec- 
tions and questions were then sent to superintendents and principals 
of eight cities in the United States and Canada. In some cases only 
the three easiest selections were sent, with the request that each of 
the pupils of the second, third, and fourth grades read all three 
selections. In certain cases the selections which were second in 
difficulty were sent, and in other cases the hardest selections were 
sent. It was hoped that in this way the relative difficulty of the 
three selections of each group could be measured. In order to 
make further comparison possible, one selection from each of 
the three groups was sent to some schools, with the request that 
the second, third, and fourth grades read the easiest selection, the 
fourth, fifth, and sixth grades read the selection second in difficulty, 
and the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades read the most difficult 
selection. The directions for giving the tests were as follows: 

Directions to Teachers 

a) Each pupil should be provided with a pencil. 

b) Pass both the reading sheets and the question sheets at the beginning. 
Each sheet should be placed on the desk face down and kept so until the pupils 
receive further directions. 

c) When the material has been distributed, the following directions should 
be given to the pupils: 

"The long sheets of paper on your desks have some paragraphs on them 
which you are to read. Read them as rapidly as you can, and at the same 
time get the thought. Remember that your skill depends upon getting the 
thought as well as reading rapidly. 

"In a little while after you have begun to read you will be told to stop. 
When you hear this signal, note the word you were just reading when the signal 
'stop' was given and underline it with your pencil. After you have done this, 
you may continue reading to the end of the selection. 



VALIDITY OF THE SILENT-READING TESTS 101 

"Place the long sheets directly in front of you, keeping them face down. 
As soon as you hear the signal to begin, turn the paper over and read as 
directed." 

d) Emphasize the various points in the directions to the pupils a second 
time. Be sure that the pupils know exactly what they are to do. In case 
your tests should include some for the second grade, give the directions as 
carefully as you can. If the results are not satisfactory, send them just the 
same. It will enable me in the future to plan better for this grade. 

e) When all is in readiness to begin, give the signal "begin." Allow 
exactly sixty- two seconds to elapse between the signal "begin" and the signal 
"stop." This allows two seconds in which the pupils may turn the papers 
and make other necessary adjustments for the reading. 

/) When the signal "stop" is given, re-emphasize the point that the exact 
word must be underlined. When the pupils have marked the word properly, 
direct them to continue the reading. As rapidly as they finish the reading 
they should lay the papers aside. 

g) When all but the very slowest pupils have finished, direct all to take 
the question sheet, read the questions, and write the answers to each in the 
spaces between the questions. 

Three thousand one hundred sixty-one records were returned. 
All the records were used in making the first estimate of the relative 
difficulty of the selections. The average number of words read per 
second was determined by grades for each selection. The answers 
to the questions were checked and a grade of 10 given for each 
question correctly answered. Table XXVII gives the number of 
pupils in each grade who read each selection, the average number 
of words read per second, and the average percentage grade for 
questions answered correctly. 

The first question to be answered as a result of this study relates 
to the advisability of adopting a test composed of three selections. 
Such a plan would be feasible provided the respective selections 
were of such difficulty that the lowest grades in each case would 
be able to make a fair record and the highest grades would have 
ample opportunity to put forth their best effort. Table XXVII 
shows that in the case of each selection these conditions have been 
met for speed and in most cases for quality. In the series of 
selections entitled "Tiny Tad," "Grasshoppers," and "Ancient 
Ships" the speed gradually increases for each selection. The 
quality scores increase in a corresponding manner, and the range in 
average quality scores of the different grades for each selection is 



102 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



sufficiently wide to satisfy the conditions mentioned above. A 
careful study of individual records showed that no special violence 
would be done to the unusually bright or slow pupil by this method. 

TABLE XXVII 

Speed and Quality Records for 3,161 Preliminary Tests 



Grade 


No. of 
Pupils 


Words 

per 
Second 


Answers 
to Ques- 
tions 


No. of 
Pupils 


Words 

per 
Second 


Answers 
to Ques- 
tions 


No. of 
Pupils 


Words 

per 
Second 


Answers 
to Ques- 
tions 


Total 
No. of 
Pupils 




TINY TAD 


NUISANCE 


BROWNIE 




II 

Ill 

IV 


Il8 
149 
143 


1. 16 
2.00 
2.40 


12 
26 
34 


125 

8l 

132 


1. 17 

1-93 
2.13 


3 
11 

18 


43 

122 
6l 


I.78 
1. 91 
2-73 


10 
24 
33 


286 
352 
336 




GRASSHOPPERS 


OPEN WELL 


SAND HILLS 




IV 

V 


103 

245 
112 


2.07 

2. 55 
2.66 


27 
39 
56 


2l8 

143 

44 


2.78 
2.71 
4.16 


22 
30 
33 


49 

36 

169 


2.03 
2.30 
3.00 


20 
34 
47 


370 
424 
325 


VI 




ANCIENT SHIPS 


ANCIENT BUILDERS 


ANCIENT ARTILLERY 




VT 

VII 

VIII 


70 
130 

45 


2.36 
2.87 
3 06 


22 
30 
38 


166 

153 

79 


2.83 
2.78 
3 40 


30 
36 
37 


141 
Il8 
166 


2.50 
2.83 
3.16 


18 

3° 

42 


377 
401 
290 




3,i6i 



The second purpose of the preliminary test was to determine 
which of the selections would form a series increasing in difficulty 
by appropriate steps of difference. The data secured in this study 
did not prove entirely adequate for this purpose, because the num- 
ber of pupils who read the same two successive paragraphs was 
small in each case. It was decided, therefore, to choose those 
selections which had proved most successful in a general way in 
the preliminary study. Upon this basis "Tiny Tad," "The 
Grasshoppers," and "Ancient Ships" were chosen. Table XXVII 
shows that these selections increased in difficulty quite regularly 
both as to speed and as to quality for the successive grades. 

The preliminary study offered a number of valuable suggestions 
concerning the more effective organization of silent-reading tests. 
Certain radical changes in the structure of the subject-matter and 



VALIDITY OF THE SILENT-READING TESTS 103 

in the character of the questions were shown to be desirable. 
Practically all teachers affirmed that a test which requires second- 
and third-grade pupils to write their answers to the questions 
penalizes these pupils unduly, because writing in itself presents 
many difficulties at this stage of the development of pupils. Many 
teachers questioned the reliability of the rate when it was indicated 
by the pupil's own mark. Concrete cases were cited in justification 
of this criticism. Several teachers tested the pupils on their com- 
prehension of what was read in other ways than by means of ques- 
tions. They concluded from the results that questions alone do 
not afford a sufficiently broad basis for testing comprehension. 
Finally the suggestion was offered that it frequently required 
several seconds for pupils to adjust themselves to the conditions 
and subject-matter of the test, and that pupils should be allowed 
to read several seconds before the experimenter begins the time 
record. 

As a result of this preliminary study and the suggestions which 
grew out of it, the silent-reading tests were organized as presented 
in chap. iii. For the purpose of this thesis it was very desirable to 
devise a test which would be as accurate as possible. Wherever 
questions arose, ease of giving the tests was usually sacrificed for 
increased accuracy in results. Different characteristics of the test 
will now be taken up in turn and discussed from the standpoint of 
validity. 

CRITICAL DISCUSSION OF THE ADOPTED METHODS OF TESTING 
SILENT READING 

Form in which the test was printed. — To obviate the difficulty 
presented by the fact that the pupil's own record of his achieve- 
ment is sometimes inaccurate, the revised test was given indi- 
vidually and the rate was recorded by the teacher. This method 
has the negative advantage that it does not interrupt the pupil's 
reading at any point. The positive advantages of the method are 
that it enables the teacher to make a personal study of the pupil 
while he is reading, and it imposes the responsibility of accuracy 
upon the teacher. Pupils have many habits connected with their 
reading, such as excessive lip movement, pointing with finger, and 



104 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

poor position of the book, which are positive handicaps to effective 
reading. Furthermore, some pupils are unable to shift the eye 
accurately from the end of one line to the beginning of the next. 
Personal study and observation of the reader frequently enable the 
teacher to determine the causes of inefficiency. Since it is more 
important to know why a pupil fails than it is to know simply that 
he is failing, the advantages of an individual test more than out- 
weigh the disadvantages of greater time and labor involved, par- 
ticularly for the purpose of the present study. 

The difficulties which arose from the fact that pupils vary in 
the time at which they begin and discontinue their reading and in the 
readiness with which they adapt themselves to the subject-matter 
which is to be read and to the conditions of the test were obviated 
in the following ways : The subject-matter of each test was printed 
on a cardboard in three columns. The middle column contained 
ioo words in the case of "Tiny Tad" and 200 words each in the 
case of "The Grasshoppers" and "Ancient Ships." The short 
column to the left enabled the reader to assume his natural rate of 
reading before the time record began. Variations in rate due to 
the fact that pupils begin and discontinue their reading at slightly 
different time periods were obviated by the fact that each pupil's 
record was secured while he was reading at his normal rate in the 
middle of the selection. The fact that the reader had to shift his 
eyes from the bottom of the first column to the top of the second 
and again from the bottom of the second column to the top of the 
third enabled the investigator to note accurately the time at which 
the reading of the second column began and ended. 

Length of the test. — Several points were considered in determining 
the length of the reading tests. In the first place, practical con- 
siderations require that the shortest test be used which will secure 
accurate results. Concerning the relation of the length of the test 
to the rate of reading, Starch {Journal of Educational Psychology, 
VI, 8) shows that the number of words read per second is practically 
the same whether a person reads for 30 or for 60 seconds. He 
therefore concluded that a test of 30 seconds was sufficiently long 
to insure accuracy. Since many pupils read the selections involved 
in this test in less than 30 seconds, the following study was made: 



VALIDITY OF THE SILENT-READING TESTS 105 

A group of eighth-grade pupils were tested first upon "Ancient 
Ships" and then upon a selection the middle column of which con- 
tained 500 words. The results of this test showed that the average 
rate of reading was the same whether the middle column contained 
200 words or 500 words. It was concluded, therefore, that the tests 
as devised were sufficiently long to serve as accurate measures of rate. 

Tests conducted by Miss Katherine McLaughlin in the Ele- 
mentary School of the University of Chicago show that fifth-grade 
pupils reproduce and answer questions concerning the latter por- 
tions of a selection less well than concerning earlier portions if the 
selection is over 300 words in length. This proved to be true if 
either the earlier or the latter portions were reproduced first. She 
concluded that fatigue or memory span was a real factor in tests 
which involve long selections. For the purpose of eliminating as 
many variable elements as possible it was decided to limit the 
silent-reading tests to less than 300 words. The selection for 
the second and third grades was made 100 words shorter than the 
selections for the upper grades. This reduction was made because 
pupils of the lower grades read much more slowly than pupils of 
the upper grades. 

Reliability of a single record for rate. — To determine the reliability 
of a single record for rate, the following investigation was made: 
A class of 19 pupils was tested on each of two selections, the one 
somewhat more difficult than the other. Table XXVIII gives the 
results for each selection in terms of the number of seconds required 
by each pupil to read 200 words (see p. 106). 

The correlation between the two rankings, as computed by 
Spearman's footrule, is +0.88. This indicates a high degree of 
accuracy in a single record for rate. 

Method of determining rate. — In order that the average achieve- 
ment of groups of individuals as to rate of silent reading might be 
represented numerically, the harmonic mean of the rates (the arith- 
metical mean of absolute times) was adopted. This average was 
then expressed in terms of the number of words read per second. 

Comprehension based on reproduction and answers to questions. — 
When a pupil tries to understand what he reads, a number of com- 
plex processes are involved. The entire meaning which he secures 



io6 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



is the result of this total mental activity. Meaning may take 
various forms, such as general impressions, feelings of assent or 
disapproval, a mental record of the most important points, a mental 
record of practically all the details, a recognition of the relationship 
of the facts expressed to other known facts, etc. It would be 
impracticable in an investigation of this type, even if it were pos- 
sible, to test meaning in all its forms, on account of the amount of 

TABLE XXVIII 

Influence of Different Selections on Rank in Silent 
Reading 





Selection A 


Selection B 


Pupil 


Time in 
Seconds 


Rank 


Time in 
Seconds 


Rank 


I 


17 
20 
20 

22 
22 
22 

23 
29 

30 
30 
30 
31 
32 
32 
34 

35 
38 
40 
40 


I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
IS 
16 

17 
18 

J 9 


23 
27 
31 
26 
28 
29 
29 
32 
31 
33 
43 
43 
47 
30 
45 
40 
60 
57 
59 


1 


2 


3 
8 


3 


4 


2 


5 


4 
5 
6 


6 


7 


8 


10 


g 


9 
11 


IO 


II 


13 
14 
16 


12 


13 


14 


7 
15 
12 


15 


16 


17 


19 

17 
18 


18 


IO 







time which would be required. For the purpose of this study it 
seemed best to test by at least two methods. Reproduction and 
answers to questions were the means adopted because they repre- 
sent two of the most frequent ways in which comprehension is 
tested in our schools today. That both methods form a better test 
than either one alone is shown by the fact that pupils vary widely 
in their ability to reproduce and to answer questions. The records 
in Table XXIX show that some pupils do relatively well by one 
method and relatively poorly by the other. 



VALIDITY OF THE SILENT-READING TESTS 



107 



Oral reproductions below the fourth grade. — The fact has been 
pointed out that second- and third-grade pupils are greatly handi- 
capped by the requirement that they write their own reproductions. 
Tests were given in all grades from the second to the sixth inclusive 

TABLE XXIX 

Relative Achievement of Pupils in Reproductions 
and Answers to Questions 



Grade 


Pupil 


Reproduction 
Score 


Question Score 


f 


a 


14 


30 


IIB \ 


b 


12 


30 


1 


c 


6 


3° 




a 


30 


60 




b 


25 


60 




c 


22 


60 


VIA \ 


d 


17 


60 




e 


IO 


60 




f 


IS 


80 




g 


27 


60 




h 


28 


40 



to determine the relative efficiency with which pupils report orally 
and write their reproductions. The pupils were first tested on 
their ability to reproduce a selection orally. Upon the basis of 
these results the class was divided into two groups of equal ability. 

TABLE XXX 

Comparison of the Percentage Reproduced Orally 
with Percentage Reproduced in Writing 



Selection 


Grade 


Written 
Reproduction 


Oral 
Reproduction 


Tiny Tad 

Tiny Tad 

The Grasshoppers . 
The Grasshoppers . 
The Grasshoppers . 


II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 


5-o ' 

14.0 

14-3 
17.0 
20.3 


20.0 
25 .0 
15.8 
18.0 
20.5 



One section of each grade then read "Tiny Tad" or "The Grass- 
hoppers" and reproduced the selection in writing. The second 
section of each grade gave the reproduction orally. Table XXX 
gives the average reproduction scores for each section of each grade. 



108 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

The table shows that pupils in the second and third grades are dis- 
tinctly handicapped by the requirement that they write their repro- 
ductions. Even in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades those who 
report their reproductions orally do slightly better than those who 
write them. The difference is so small, however, that it need not 
be considered seriously. In the light of this evidence the method 
was adopted of having second- and third-grade pupils report their 
reproductions orally and of having the pupils of all other grades 
write. 

Method of scoring reproductions. — The method used in this 
investigation for scoring reproductions was as follows: All errone- 
ous statements, all repetitions, and all irrelevant statements were 
checked from the pupils' reproductions and the remaining words 
were counted. The ratio of these words to the total number of 
words read was taken as the reproduction score. This method is 
very similar to the " word-counting method" adopted by Starch 
{Journal of Educational Psychology, VI, 7) . The only difference is 
that Starch takes the total number of words reproduced as the 
index of comprehension, while the method followed here takes the 
percentage of words correctly reproduced as the index of com- 
prehension. 

A sample test follows to illustrate the method of scoring. It is 
a test of a second-grade girl. She wrote 69 words, 13 of which were 
checked from her reproduction. Since she read 174 words and 
reproduced 56 of them correctly, her reproduction scores 32 per 
cent. 

Tiny Tad was a queer little fellow. He was nearly black. He said, 
"When I grow up and get my legs I am going to hop around to the orchard. 
I wish I had a brother to hop with me." One morning a little toad scrambled 
out on the bank. It was Tiny Tad. He had grown his hind legs, and wa3 
fl ow hopping around as any oth e r toad would . 

For the purpose of checking the results of this method of scoring 
with the "group-idea method" which has been widely used, the 
selections were analyzed according to the suggestions of Judd 
{Elementary School Teacher, XIV, 371). The significant feature of 
the method is that the unit of measurement is a group of ideas in 
significant relationship. After the selections had been analyzed 



VALIDITY OF THE SILENT-READING TESTS 109 

into group-ideas according to the judgment of the writer, the 
groups of ideas selected were compared with the grouping which 
appeared most frequently in the pupils' reproductions. Whenever 
there was doubt concerning the best grouping or whenever the 
grouping selected differed materially from that given by the pupils, 
the practice of the majority of the pupils was accepted as the 
standard. The final analysis of "Tiny Tad" was as follows: 

Tiny Tad 

Tiny Tad was a queer little fellow | with only two legs | and a short tail. J . 
He was nearly black, too, | and much smaller than most tadpoles | in the big 
pond. I He could hardly wait | for his front legs to grow. | 

"When I have them all," | he said, | "I'll leave this dirty water | and go 
up into the orchard. | What fun it will be | to hop and hop and hop. | If only 
I had a little brother | to hop with me, | I should be so happy." | 

It wasn't long | before his legs began to grow. | He moved about | and 
kicked around | until his legs were quite strong. | "I am going out on the 
bank | to see if I can hop," | he said | one night | when he was just six weeks 
old. I 

The sun was hardly up | the next morning | when a little toad jumped out 
of the water | and hopped up on the bank. | He was very small, | but none 
too small for the little legs | that wabbled under him. | It was Tiny, | the 
young toad. | 

According to this analysis, each sentence is divided into several 
group-ideas, each of which when accurately reproduced is given full 
credit. If a group-idea is partially reproduced, it is given half- 
credit. If a totally new or wrong idea is introduced, it is checked 
out. If a group-idea in the reproduction represents an accurate 
combination of portions of the ideas in two or more groups, it is 
given full credit for one, one and one-half, or two group-ideas of 
the original text, according to its content and quality. The follow- 
ing illustration will make clear this method of scoring. The num- 
bers to the left of the lines represent the amount of credit given 
for each group of ideas. 

Reproduction by a Third-Grade Pupil 

1 "Tiny Tad was a queer little fellow." 

Full credit. 
1 "He was nearly black." 

Full credit. 



no STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

i "He said." 

Full credit, 
i "When I ( grow up and ) get my legs." 

Equivalent to "when I have them all." 
i "I am going to hop (w©«*4) in the orchard." 

Two groups incompletely reproduced. Given credit for one. 

2 "I wish I had a brother to hop with me." 

Full credit for two group ideas. > 

f "One morning." 

Not so specific as "the next morning." 
* "A little toad scrambled out of the pond." 

Portions of two groups. Given credit for one. 
i "It was Tiny Tad." 

Full credit. 
| "He had grown his hind legs." 

A true statement but given out of connection. 
"And was now hopping around as any toad would." 

A true statement, but none similar to it is made in the original, and 

hence it is not counted. 

According to this analysis, 10 of the 36 group-ideas are repro- 
duced. Reduced to a percentage basis, the reproduction score is 
28 per cent. According to the word-counting method, 56 out of 
174 words were reproduced correctly. Expressed on a percentage 
basis, the reproduction score is 32 per cent. According to this 
illustration, the group-idea method which endeavors to evaluate 
more accurately the various phases of the reproduction is a 
more severe method of scoring than is the word-counting method. 
In order that the similarity of results secured by the two methods 
might be determined, the reproductions of 220 pupils in six grades 
of the Elementary School of the University of Chicago were scored 
by both methods. The results are given in Table XXXI. 

The table shows that the average scores by the word-counting 
method are higher throughout the grades. The differences between 
the two scores are remarkably uniform. The reproductions were 
scored a second time by the two methods. The class averages 
were practically the same in each case as those which were secured 
by the first scoring. The individual scores varied very little for the 
two scorings by the word-counting method. Some variations 
appeared in the scores by the group-idea method. It therefore 



VALIDITY OF THE SILENT-READING TESTS 



in 



appeared that the word-counting method was the more constant 
measure as well as the more rapid measure. 

TABLE XXXI 

Comparison of Reproduction Grades When Scored by the "Word-Counting" 
Method and by the "Group-Idea" Method 



Selection 

Tiny Tad 

Tiny Tad 

Tiny Tad. 

Tiny Tad 

Tiny Tad 

Tiny Tad 

The Grasshoppers 
The Grasshoppers 
The Grasshoppers 
The Grasshoppers 
The Grasshoppers 
Ancient Ships . . . . 



Grade 


No. of Pupils 


Counting 
Words 


Group-Idea 


Differ 


IIB 


12 


8.1 


7-5 




IIA 


15 


25.2 


22.0 


3- 


IIIB 


14 


29.0 


26.3 


2. 


IIIA 


IS 


29.0 


26.0 


3- 


IVB 


28 


3*-7 


28.6 


3- 


IVA 


20 


35-3 


32.0 


3- 


IVA 


20 


20.0 


16.5 


3- 


VB 


16 


23.0 


18. s 


4- 


VA 


21 


25.0 


21-5 


3- 


VIA 


25 


24.6 


20.6 


4 


VIIA 


17 


28.0 


24.0 


4 


VIIA 


17 


25.0 


22.0 


3 



Amount of credit given for correct answers to questions. — A credit 
of 10 points was given for each question answered correctly. 
Theoretically this method of grading would be accurate provided 
the questions were of equal difficulty. Now, in fact, the questions 
are not of equal difficulty if we take the number of times each 
question was answered correctly as an index of difficulty. How- 
ever, the relative difficulty of the questions differed for different 
schools. The experiences of individuals and classes differ widely, 
and it is legitimate to expect that some questions will be less diffi- 
cult for some than for others. Hence the course of procedure which 
was adopted for this study was to secure a list of questions so diffi- 
cult that very few pupils of a class would be able to answer all the 
questions and at the same time easy enough so that no pupil would 
fail entirely unless he were an exceptional case. After a long period 
of experimentation, the questions used in this study were adopted. 
The number of times that each question was answered correctly by 
the first one hundred pupils who took each test after the final lists 
of questions had been chosen is shown in Table XXXII. 

The numbers show that the questions which were selected fulfil 
the conditions mentioned above. After the desired degree of uni- 
formity in the difficulty of the questions had been secured, it was 



112 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



arbitrarily decided to give a credit of 10 points for each question 
correctly answered. 

TABLE XXXII 

Relative Difficulty of the Questions for Each 
Selection 



Question 


Tiny Tad 


The 

Grasshoppers 


Ancient Ships 


I 


74 
74 
55 
47 
8o 

4i 
43 
3° 
53 

20 


69 
51 
63 
29 

50 
48 
52 
60 

39 
58 


50 


2 


70 


3 


84 


4 


75 


5 


60 


6 


3° 
48 


7 


8 


56 
40 


g 


IO 


42 



VALIDITY OF THE STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT IN SPEED AND 
QUALITY OF SILENT READING 

In order to determine the steps of difference in difficulty between 
the respective selections and to derive standards of achievement 
for each grade, 2,654 tests were given in 13 cities of Iowa, Minne- 
sota, Tennessee, and Illinois. In general, the same instructions 
were used in giving these tests as are outlined in chap. iii. One 
important addition should be mentioned. To determine the rela- 
tive difficulty of the various selections, it was necessary to have 
certain grades read two selections. Therefore fourth-grade pupils 
were asked to read both "Tiny Tad" and "The Grasshoppers," and 
sixth-grade pupils were asked to read both "The Grasshoppers" 
and "Ancient Ships." 

After all the tests had been given, a record was made of the 
number of seconds required by each pupil to read 100 words. These 
rates were tabulated in order from the most rapid to the slowest. 
For the purpose of this report the records have been grouped as 
follows: Those pupils who required from o to 4 seconds, from 5 
to 9 seconds, from 10 to 14 seconds, from 15 to 19 seconds, etc., 
were grouped together. The results for 2,654 pupils appear in 
Table XXXIII. 



VALIDITY OF THE SILENT-READING TESTS 



"3 



TABLE XXXni 

Distribution of 2,654 Pupils with Reference to the Time Required to Read 

100 Words Silently 



No. of Seconds 



No. in 

Grade 

II 



No. in 

Grade 

III 



No. in 

Grade 

IV 



No. in 

Grade 

IV 



No. in 

Grade 

V 



No. in 

Grade 

VI 



No. in 

Grade 

VI 



No. in 
Grade 
VII 



No. in 
Grade 
VIII 



O- 4. 

5- 9- 
IO- 14. 

15- 19- 

20- 24. 
25- 29. 
3°- 34- 
35- 39- 
40- 44- 
45- 49- 
5o- 54- 
55- 59- 
60- 64. 
65- 69. 
70- 74. 

75- 79- 
80- 84. 
85- 89. 
90- 94. 

95- 99 ■ 

100-104. 
105-109. 
110-114. 

ii5-"9- 

120-124. 
125-129. 
I3°- I 34- 
I35-I39- 
140-144 . 
145-149. 
150-154. 

I55-I59- 
160-164. 
165-169. 
170-174. 
180-184. 
185-189. 
190-194. 
195-199. 
200-204 . 
205-209 . 
225-229. 
285-289. 



4 

4 

5 

14 

17 
17 
21 

32 
34 
38 
25 
24 

23 
23 
15 
17 
6 

10 
7 
9 
5 

10 
6 
3 



Total.... 

Median time 

Average time 

Words per second . 



389 
66 

66.6 
i-5 



7 
25 
27 

57 
44 
39 
34 
46 
12 
34 
17 
21 
10 

7 
6 

7 
3 
5 



6 
18 
37 
42 
72 
5i 
46 

24 
22 

15 

10 

12 

4 

3 



24 
19 

46 

36 
38 
45 
35 
27 
27 
13 
3 
16 

5 
7 
5 
7 



3 
32 
43 
79 
64 
52 
35 
32 
25 
21 
10 



2 
6 

25 

73 
64 
63 
49 
42 
20 
16 

5 
6 

3 

2 

1 



4 
4 
18 
4i 
54 
66 

54 
5° 
3i 
18 

15 
6 

7 
3 

1 
1 



16 

57 
86 

74 
52 
34 
3° 
23 



417 
45 
43-4 

2-3 



373 
35 

33-4 
2.99 



373 
45 

45-5 
2.2 



422 
39 

38.9 
2-57 



377 
37 

35-8 
2.79 



377 
40 

39-2 

2-55 



21 
38 
60 

44 
40 

19 
16 

4 
4 
6 



405 
37 

37-2 
2.69 



271 

35 

34-8 
2.87 



H4 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



From the facts presented in Table XXXIII it has been possible 
to plot a curve of progress for rate of silent reading. Diagram VIII 
represents the progress of 2,654 pupils in silent reading and may be 
used as a standard for comparison. • The diagram was constructed 
as follows : The vertical lines in the table represent the grades from 
the second to the eighth inclusive. The numbers 1 . 00, 2 . 00, 3 . 00, 
and 4.00 to the left of the diagram designate the rates at which 
second- and third-grade pupils read "Tiny Tad"; the numbers 
1.21,2.21, and 3.21, between the third and fourth grades, designate 



4.00 




3i21 






1 
1 
1 
• 
1 
1 
2i97 




3.00 




2|21 




^-- 


t 

1 

IU97 




2.00 




ljM 


y 




1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

i97 




1.00 










1 
1 
t 
1 
1 
t 
1 





2nd 



3rd 4th 



5th 



6 th 



7 th 



8th 



Diagram VIII. — Progress of 2,654 pupils in rate of silent reading 



the rates at which fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade pupils read "The 
Grasshoppers;" and the numbers .97, 1.97, and 2.97, between 
the sixth and seventh grades, designate the rates at which seven th- 
and eighth-grade pupils read "Ancient Ships." These readjust- 
ments in the diagram were made as follows: Fourth-grade pupils 
read "Tiny Tad" at a rate of 2.99 words per second and "The 
Grasshoppers" at a rate of 2. 20 words per second. The numbers 
designating the rates for fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade pupils were 
shifted along the vertical axis until a rate of 2 . 20 words per second 
for "The Grasshoppers" was equivalent to a rate of 2.99 words 
per second for "Tiny Tad." Similarly, the numbers designating 



VALIDITY OF THE SILENT-READING TESTS 115 

the rate for seventh- and eighth-grade pupils were so arranged 
along the vertical axis that a rate of 2.55 words per second for 
sixth-grade pupils reading "Ancient Ships" was equivalent to a 
rate of 2. 79 words per second for "The Grasshoppers.'' Upon the 
basis of this organization the curve of progress was drawn as repre- 
sented in the diagram. In order to determine the extent to which 
this assumed curve of progress represents the real curve of progress 
through the grades, 200 pupils from the fourth to the eighth grades 
inclusive were tested on "Tiny Tad." The results are represented 
by the dotted line in the diagram. The close correspondence 
between the assumed curve and the curve for the pupils involved 
in the check test justifies the belief that the assumed curve repre- 
sents quite accurately the increase in rate of silent reading through 
the grades. 

The reproductions and the answers to questions were scored 
according to the method described on p. 54. The average of these 
two scores for each pupil was adopted as the comprehension score. 
The comprehension scores were then arranged in order from the 
lowest to the highest. They are presented in summary form in 
Table XXXIV. 

The progress in quality of silent reading for 2,654 pupils is 
represented in Diagram IX and may be used as a basis for com- 
parison. This diagram was constructed and should be interpreted 
in the same way as Diagram VIII. 

To determine the extent to which this assumed curve represents 
the real curve of progress in quality of silent reading, the reproduc- 
tion and answers to questions were scored for 200 pupils in the 
grades from the fourth to the eighth inclusive. These results are 
represented by the dotted line in Diagram IX. Again the very 
close correspondence between the assumed curve and the real curve 
would indicate that the former represents with a fair degree of 
accuracy the curve of progress in quality of silent reading. 

Limitations of the silent-reading tests. — -The silent-reading tests 
measure three things: namely, rate of reading a given selection, 
ability to reproduce what is read, and ability to answer specific 
questions concerning the subject-matter. To test comprehension 
in a thoroughgoing way, a number of selections should be used 



n6 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



rather than one, and a larger number of tests of what one gets out 
of his reading should be included. 

The selection entitled "Ancient Ships" is relatively more diffi- 
cult for pupils in the seventh and eighth grades than are "The 
Grasshoppers" and "Tiny Tad" for pupils in the intermediate and 
lower grades, respectively. More satisfactory, but perhaps no 
more accurate, results might have been secured had the selection 
for the upper grades been less difficult. 

TABLE XXXIV 

Distribution of 2,654 Pupils with Reference to Scores for Quality of 

Silent Reading 



Comprehension Score 



No. in 

Grade 

II 



No. in 

Grade 

III 



No. in 

Grade 

IV 



No. in 

Grade 

IV 



No. in 

Grade 

V 



No. in 

Grade 

VI 



No. in 

Grade 

VI 



No. in 

Grade 

VII 



No. in 
Grade 
VIII 



o- 4. . 

5- 9-- 
10-14. . 
15-19. . 

20-24. . 
25-29-- 
30-34- • 
35-39- • 
40-44 . . 

45-49- • 
50-54-- 
55-59- • 
60-64. . 

65-69.. 

70-74.. 

75-79- • 
80-84 • • 

Total... 
Median. 
Average 



4 
13 
19 

34 
4i 
60 

57 
54 
42 
24 

15 
6 
8 
6 
3 



5 
15 
14 
33 
50 
58 
65 
50 
38 
4i 
24 
14 



16 
22 

27 
46 

54 

60 

40 

4i 

30 

17 

4 

3 

2 



16 
22 
30 
35 
50 
49 
39 
38 
39 
26 

14 
10 



7 
24 
26 
44 
40 
48 
5i 
38 
45 
39 
35 
16 

6 



4 
6 
10 
17 
29 
35 
44 
44 
48 

44 
32 
32 



22 
61 
66 
63 
So 
32 
27 
18 
13 



17 
35 
58 
67 
64 
42 
40 
26 
18 
n 



9 
25 
32 
34 
24 
20 

32 
24 
25 
20 

9 

7 
4 

2 

4 



389 
3i 
3i-5 



117 

37 
37-3 



373 
40 
40. 



373 
28 
28.8 



422 
32 
3i-8 



377 
39 
39-i 



377 
18 
18.0 



405 
22 
21.6 



271 
26 
26.9 



The tests are given individually and therefore require consider- 
able time and effort. The method of scoring results is slow and 
somewhat laborious. The tests are therefore not so well adapted 
to practical schoolroom purposes as are many of the tests described 
in chap. ii. From the point of view of their value as aids in educa- 
tional diagnosis and supervision these tests are distinctly superior 
to some which are more easily administered, because they afford 
to the teacher an excellent opportunity to make a careful study of 
the difficulties of each pupil during the course of the test. For 



VALIDITY OF THE SILENT-READING TESTS 



117 



the purpose of this investigation they have made it possible to 
secure a body of very valuable data. 

The method used in this study for scoring reproductions is open 
to the criticism that unless investigators are carefully trained the 
scores given by different investigators to the same reproduction will 
vary. For the purpose of determining the extent to which this 
criticism is true, ten graduate students were asked to grade each 
of ten reproductions. The average variation of the individual 







1 
1 
i 












60. 




1 

4812 








27I1 




50. 




1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

38l2 








^s — *" 






1 
I 












40. 




1 
1 
1 
2812^-" 




•ff 




711 




30. 




l 
1 











2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 

Diagram IX. — Progress of 2,654 pupils in quality of silent reading 



8th 



scores was 1 . 5 per cent. In a recent investigation carried on in 
10 cities each classroom teacher scored the tests for his own grades. 
All of the papers were then rescored by a highly trained student. 
The average variation between the quality scores secured by the 
teachers and by the trained student was less than 1 . 5 per cent. 

Any inaccuracy in the curves of progress which is due to the 
limited number of cases for each grade will be corrected as more 
data accumulate. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 

It was stated at the outset that the purpose of this investigation 
was to make a study of the achievement of pupils in oral and silent 
reading. A very large part of the discussion up to this point has 
been devoted to a description of the methods employed in securing 
the desired facts. It is the purpose of this chapter to present the 
results which were secured through the use of oral- and silent- 
reading tests in an investigation in Cleveland, Ohio. A large part 
of the results which are presented in this chapter has already 
appeared in the chapter on reading in the Cleveland Survey 
monograph entitled Measuring the Work of the Public Schools. 
The material was rearranged several times during the preparation 
of the monograph report. Additional points are included in the 
present report in order to give added emphasis to certain general 
conclusions which the data justify. The writer wishes to acknowl- 
edge his indebtedness to Dr. Charles H. Judd and Dr. Leonard P. 
Ayres for many criticisms and much constructive help which were 
offered during the course of the investigation, and for many 
suggestions concerning the interpretation of the results. 

IMPORTANCE OF READING INVESTIGATIONS 

In the investigation of the quality of the teaching in any city 
system the progress which the pupils make in reading should be 
given very large consideration. Evidence of the vital importance 
of this subject is found in the fact that a pupil's progress through 
school depends to a large extent upon his ability to master the 
thought of the printed page. Furthermore, it is necessary to keep 
the relative importance of oral and silent reading clearly in mind. 
In most ordinary situations of life one reads silently for the purpose 
of gathering ideas and not for the purpose of oral exhibition. 
Hence, one of the most important purposes of a school should be 
to train its pupils effectively in the art of silent, individual mastery 

118 



THE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 119 

of the printed page. With these points in mind the investigation 
of reading in Cleveland was undertaken. The tests of oral and 
silent reading described in chaps, iv and v were used in all of the 
schools tested. Through their use it was possible to secure a body 
of facts upon which to base conclusions concerning the achievement 
of pupils in various phases of oral reading and of silent reading. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE SCHOOL POPULATION TESTED 

The oral-reading test was given in 44 schools. A preliminary 
list of 50 schools was selected with three considerations in mind: 
the first was that the schools tested should represent all sections 
of the city; the second, that schools using different methods of 
teaching reading should be included; and the third, that all 
nationalities should be represented. From this preliminary list of 
50 schools, 40 schools were chosen which could be reached most 
easily by those giving the tests. Arrangements were made later for 
giving the tests in the three training schools of the city and in 
another public school. This brought the number of schools tested 
to 44. Because of the care used in selecting the schools it is felt 
that the pupils tested represented very well the school population 
of the city. 

Within each school the number of grades and the number of 
pupils which were tested varied slightly. In most schools the 
following plan was adopted: Pupils from the A divisions of the 
first four grades of each school were tested. If the examiners had 
sufficient time, each of the upper grades was tested; if they did 
not have time to examine all grades, either the fifth and seventh 
grades or the sixth and eighth grades were tested in addition to the 
first four. 

Because of the limitations of time only 7 pupils from each grade 
were tested in the case of most of the schools. These pupils were 
chosen as follows : The teacher was asked to select from her grade, 
according to her best judgment, the boy and girl who ranked 
lowest in the class in reading, the boy and girl who ranked highest, 
and 3 pupils of average ability. In a number of schools, however, 
as many as 15 pupils from each grade were tested. In all, 2,200 
pupils were tested, making an average of 50 pupils per school. 



120 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 

METHOD OF TRAINING THOSE WHO GAVE THE TESTS 

The tests were given in 40 schools by 80 Seniors of the normal 
school. In the remaining four schools the teachers of the respective 
grades gave the tests. The normal-school students were carefully 
trained for this work. A general meeting of the students was held 
at which printed directions were distributed. After the method 
of giving the tests had been discussed in detail, a third-grade boy 
was tested for the purpose of illustrating concretely how the test 
should be given. Questioning was encouraged and everything 
possible was done to make the method clear. Two days later a 
second meeting was held. In the meantime the normal-school 
students tested two or three pupils to find out just where the diffi- 
culties lay. The second meeting was devoted to clearing up ques- 
tions which arose during the preliminary testing. The regular 
classroom teachers who gave the tests received instructions through 
group conferences. 

The writer feels that the instructions and the preliminary train- 
ing received by the students and teachers qualified them to do the 
work effectively. Evidences of this are found in various facts. 
In the first place, principals of the schools in which the tests were 
given frequently commented on the business-like way in which the 
students worked. Furthermore, the test papers which were turned 
in by the students showed that they knew exactly what they were 
after. Very few papers had to be rejected as unsatisfactory. 

SUMMARY OF THE ORAL-READING RESULTS BY GRADES 

After the tests had been given, the results were scored by the 
writer according to the method described in chap. iii. The average 
score for each class tested is presented in Table XXXV. The rela- 
tive achievement of the various classes in each of the grades is 
represented graphically in Diagram X. The figures for the fifth, 
sixth, seventh, and eighth grades are slightly inaccurate for pur- 
poses of comparison, inasmuch as all of the 44 schools are not 
represented. Such a large percentage of the schools is included, 
however, that it is felt that the distribution is representative. The 
numbers along the base line of the figure for each grade designate 
the scores for oral reading. Each square in the figure for a grade 



THE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 12 1 

represents the achievement of one of the classes of that grade, 
reported in Table XXXV. Thus the square to the left in the 

TABLE XXXV 
Scores in Oral Reading in Each Grade in 44 Schools 



School 



Grades 



III 



IV 



VI 



VII 



VIII 



Addison 

Alabama 

Bolton 

Boulevard 

Brownell 

Case 

Case Woodland 
Chesterfield .... 

Clark 

Denison 

Detroit 

Doan 

Dunham 

Eagle 

Fairmont 

Fullerton 

Hazeldell 

Hodge 

Hough 

Kennard 

Kentucky 

Kinsman 

Lawn 

Lincoln 

Mt. Pleasant... 
Murray Hill . . . 
North Doan . . . 
Observation. . . 

Orchard 

Outhwaite 

Quincy 

Rice 

Rosedale 

Sackett 

Sowinski 

Stanard 

Sterling 

St. Clair 

Tremont 

Warren 

Waverley 

Willard 

Willson 

Woodland 

Average 



41-95 

28.55 
36-25 
30-35 
27-85 
14.80 
33 00 
24. 10 

35-7° 
40.00 

44-3° 
33-40 

28. 20 

5-9° 

27.50 

14-45 
26.80 
49.80 
40.00 

27.85 
20.60 

37-65 
28.40 

33 - 00 
20.00 

33-75 
52-30 
36.05 
48.55 
35-9o 
16.40 

36.75 
32-15 
3165 
29.25 
8.25 
21.60 
18.40 

15-55 
25-5o 
46.40 
47-5o 
30.00 
35 00 

30.73 



44 


40 


40. 


35 


00 


47- 


44 


65 


47- 


5° 


55 


3«- 


44 


65 


39- 


48 


75 


39- 


55 


05 


51- 


39 


80 


52. 


33 


05 


40. 


40 


90 


50. 


50 


90 


44. 


44 


15 


55- 


44 


45 


50. 


30 


15 


38. 


45 


15 


47- 


44 


45 


48. 


37 


30 


41- 


44 


80 


5i- 


40 


00 


50. 


37 


65 


45- 


37 


25 


48. 


34 


10 


50. 


23 


55 


40. 


4i 


50 


49- 


43 


20 


53- 


38 


75 


36- 


54 


80 


48. 


36 


90 


47- 


45 


15 


42. 


48 


90 


55- 


43 


90 


45- 


43 


40 


48. 


5° 


90 


39- 


45 


55 


45- 


44 


30 


45- 


39 


30 


4i- 


45 


35 


44- 


37 


15 


38 


47 


85 


46 


48 


00 


42 


43 


20 


48 


42 


50 


43 


38 


■35 


47 


39 


.80 


45 



42.49 



.00 
.10 

• 30 

.20 

.60 
•30 
.60 

• 30 
15 

.90 

■65 

.00 

15 

• 90 
15 

75 

■25 
■05 
•85 
-90 
■75 
.00 
.00 

•65 

, 20 

•95 

■55 

. 10 

■30 

• 30 

•34 
.90 

•55 

■90 
.90 

25 
■95 
.90 

•°5 
•85 
■95 
.90 

25 

.90 



45 -85 



50 



55 



47.22 



47.89 



50 



49 



90 



42 



30 



50 



49.16 



53 



47 



90 



85 



47-23 



15 
00 

05 
i.28 



122 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



in 



flxfl 



Mil l 



a 



First Grade. 

IV Schools 



W 20 30 «0 50 60 ?o 



n n F 



la_ 



Second Grade 
t*4 Schools 



10 SO 30 fo SO bo 70 



£ 



Third Grade 
11 Schools 



io Bo 30 10 SO 6o 70 



,-CL 



Lji 



Fourth Grade 
13 Schools 



10 So 30 vo so Go 70 



jR 



CE 



Fifth Graoe 

3o Schools 



10 £0 30 VO SO 60 70 



n n rff 



fa. 



10 SO 30 HO SO 60 70 



Sixth Grade 

21 Schools 

JQ_ 



XL 



B. 



Seventh Grade 
29 Schools 



io So 30 to SO 60 70 



nFW 



U Eighth Grade 

27 Sciioots 



, n . . 



10 So 30 Ho SO CO TO 

Diagram X. — Graphical representation of achievement of schools in oral reading 



TEE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 123 

diagram for the first grade represents the score for Eagle School, 
which was 5 . 90. The shift of the base line to the right for each 
successive grade shows the average increase in reading achievement 
from one grade to the next. These shifts are described in detail 
on p. 90. 

The diagram shows that there is steady progress throughout the 
grades, more rapid in the lower grades and less rapid in the upper 
grades. Furthermore, the distribution of the class averages for 
each grade forms a fairly regular surface of distribution. When the 
individual scores are plotted by grades in corresponding diagrams, 
most of the irregularities in the frequency-curves are eliminated. 
It is very evident that the average attainment of classes in the first 
two grades varies more widely than in the upper grades. These 
results may be due in part to the method used in calculating the 
averages. On the other hand, it is apparent that first-grade classes 
must vary widely in Cleveland, inasmuch as the pupils of many of 
these classes are confronted with serious handicaps of language. 
One of the most impressive facts brought out by the diagram is 
the large amount of overlapping in the distribution of achievement 
in successive grades. Recent investigations of achievement in 
elementary-school subjects have revealed a large amount of over- 
lapping by individuals in successive grades. Diagram X shows 
a large amount of overlapping in the average achievement of 
classes in successive grades. When we find that the average 
achievement of the poorest sixth-grade class is no greater than 
that of the best second-grade class, we are forced to question 
the efficiency of reading instruction in various schools and 
classrooms. 

The records of individual pupils show even more marked varia- 
tions than do the records for schools. In many third-grade classes 
pupils were tested who ranged in ability from those unable to read 
as well as an average first-grade pupil to those able to surpass an 
average eighth-grade pupil. In the intermediate and upper grades 
there were a number of pupils who were still unable to pronounce 
at sight some of the simpler words, and they ranked no higher in 
achievement than average first- or second-grade pupils. In each 
of the grades above the second there were many pupils who made 



124 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



a very high score and for whom it is doubtful whether continued 
daily drill in oral reading is longer necessary. 



VARIATIONS IN SCHOOLS 



The average achievement of all the classes in each grade was 
given in Table XXXV. These averages are represented graphically 
by the heavy continuous line in Diagram XL The method used 




Case Woodland 
Cleveland average ■ 
Eagle School — 




8«j 



l8t Xentuoky Sohool 

Cleveland average 

Brownell Sohool 



Diagram XI. — Average scores in oral reading in each grade in all elementary schools 
and in four selected schools. 



in constructing this diagram was discussed on p. 44. This average 
Cleveland record is the one with which individual schools and other 
records will be compared. The validity of the comparison of the 
scores made by different classes may be questioned on account of 
the small number of pupils tested from some classes. In all of 
the cases represented in Diagrams XI and XII personal observa- 
tion of the work of the reading classes confirmed the impressions 
which the numerical scores gave. 



THE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 125 

Diagrams XI and XII represent the curves of progress in oral- 
reading achievement for seven schools. The Case Woodland School 
does well in all grades, while the Eagle School attains only a low 
level of achievement. The Kentucky School makes a poor start, 
but from the third grade on maintains a high level of achievement. 
The Brownell School makes a fair start, but drops below the average 
from the third grade on. The Rice School maintains a level close 





Rice School — 
Cleveland average- 



l8t Outhwaite School • 
Cleveland average- 



Quincy School — — — — 



Diagram XII. — Average scores in oral reading in each grade in all elementary 
schools and in three selected schools. 



to the average throughout. The contrast between the Qunicy 
School and the Outhwaite School is interesting and significant. 
Typical objective facts upon which these differences are based are 
presented in Table XXXVI. 

The table gives evidence of a marked difference in the two 
schools. In School A it would seem that the reading is fairly well 
done with but few errors. In School B, on the other hand, the 
reading is poorly done, as evidenced by the large number of omis- 
sions (O), substitutions (5), insertions (J), and repetitions {R). A 



126 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



variety of explanations might be offered for the superiority of 
School A over School B; namely, skill of the teacher, method of 
teaching reading, supervision, nationality, sex, economic level, 

TABLE XXXVI 

Specimen Record Sheet Showing the Number and Character of Errors Made 
in the Second Grade of Two Schools on Paragraphs i, 2, and 3 

school a — grade ii 



Paragraph 1 


Paragraph 2 


Paragraph 3 


T 


G 


M 





S 


I 


R 


T 


G 


M 





s 


I 


R 


T 


G 


M 





s 


I 


R 


8n 








1 

2 






60 
40 
17 
33 
35 
25 
15 


1 
1 


1 




I 
I 
I 




2 

I 


70 
45 
34 
37 
45 
30 
3° 


2 








I 




*8 
















21 
















2 


I 


23 

25 
25 

20 
















1 




























I 






































I 
















I 
















I 







































SCHOOL B — GRADE II 



Paragraph 1 


Paragraph 2 


Paragraph 3 


T 


G 


M 


O 


S 


I 


R 


T 


G 


M 





s 


I 


R 


T 


G 


M < 


) S 


I 


R 


16 

20 




I 
I 


1 


I 

3 

1 
1 
1 

4 

2 






21 

17 

22 
24 
26 

68 

52 




I 


1 


6 

1 


1 




23 
26 

30 
3i 
33 

42 

55 


1 


1 . 


1 

. 1 

1 


1 
1 
1 
2 


1 
2 


20 


2 


I 
I 

I 

1 






t6 








1 

1 
1 


3 


2 
1 






19 

56 

37 








1 


1 
2 
2 




I 


2 






3 ■ 
2 . 


. 1 

• 4 


1 


I 











home environment, etc. It was impossible to make a study of all 
these factors in this investigation. Data were secured which 
offered partial explanations, at least, along the following lines: 



ANALYSIS TO SHOW INFLUENCE OF SEX, METHOD, AND NATIONALITY 
ON PROGRESS IN ORAL READING 

The average scores in oral reading were determined for boys and 
girls in each of the eight grades separately and the results are pre- 
sented in Diagram XIII. The diagram shows that in all grades 
girls do better than boys in oral reading. Upon the basis of this 



TEE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 127 



70, 



study, all other factors being equal, a class made up largely of boys 
would do less well in oral reading than a class composed chiefly of 
girls. 

Of the 44 schools tested, 26 schools used the Aldine method of 
teaching reading, 17 schools used the Ward method, and 1 school 
used its own method. The average score by grades was computed 
for all schools using the Aldine method and for all using the Ward 
method. The results are pre- 
sented in Diagram XIV. The dia- 
gram shows that differences in 
method of teaching reading were 
not accompanied by striking differ- 
ences in achievement when a large 
number of schools were taken into 
consideration. A study of the 
records of individual schools 
showed that of the schools which 
ranked highest in the primary 
grades some had been taught by 
the Ward method and some by 
the Aldine method. The same 
statement may be made concern- 
ing the classes which ranked lowest. 
Both methods were equally 
effective with foreign-born and with 
native-born children. Compari- 
sons above the third grade are of 
little value inasmuch as these 
methods were introduced about 
three years ago. 

The influence of nationality on achievement in oral reading was 
determined by finding the average score by grades for each school 
in which a given nationality constituted most of that school's popu- 
lation. The results are presented in Diagram XV. These results 
can be accepted only in a very general way, for two reasons. The 
first is that in the case of certain nationalities the number of schools 
involved is limited. Eight American schools, three Jewish schools, 




1st 



Average all girls 

Average all pupils — — 
Average all boys — — — 

Diagram XIII. — Average scores in 
oral reading for girls and boys in each 
of the eight grades. 



128 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



and two Italian schools were included. The second reason is that 
it is not certain that all the pupils tested from a school in which a 
given nationality dominated were of that type. The results are 
sufficiently accurate, however, to serve in suggesting explanations 
for some of the earlier results reported for individual schools. 

The results show that children of American-born parents are 
superior in achievement during the first three grades and from that 

point on follow the average very 
closely. The fact that the Ameri- 
can child is not handicapped by 
unfamiliarity with the English 
language gives him a distinct 
advantage during the first few 
years. Italian pupils, on the 
other hand, are seriously handi- 
capped. The sections of the city 
in which these pupils live are 
such that factors other than mere 
lack of English in the homes are 
probably to be recognized as con- 
tributing to the low rank of these 
pupils. 

Jewish children on the average 
are distinctly ahead of the aver- 
age Cleveland pupil. In spite of 
the fact that they are often sur- 
rounded by poor economic con- 
ditions, these children seem able 
to rise above their handicaps better than do other nationalities 
under similar conditions. 




Ward System 



Aldine System — — — 

Diagram XIV. — Average scores in 
oral reading of pupils in each grade 
using the Ward method and of those 
using the Aldine method. 



ACHIEVEMENT IN CLEVELAND AS COMPARED WITH OTHER SCHOOLS 

The average achievement of the grades in Cleveland is com- 
pared with the scores of 23 typical Illinois schools in Diagram XVI. 
The data for the Illinois schools were secured in September, three 
weeks after the beginning of the fall term. The Cleveland schools 
were tested in June, just before the close of schools. To make the 



THE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 129 



data comparable for this diagram, the Illinois schools were con- 
sidered as just completing the work of the preceding year in each 
grade. Comparable data are at hand only for the grades from the 
second through the seventh. The diagram shows that the second, 
third, and fourth grades in Cleveland are making distinctly more 
rapid progress than the same grades in Illinois, while the upper 
grades in each case represent more nearly the same level of achieve- 
ment. When it is remembered that the school population of 




70, 



8 th 




American schools - 
Cleveland average - 
Italian schools — 



Hebrew schools — 
Cleveland average ■ 



Diagram XV. — Average scores in oral reading of pupils of different nationalities 

Cleveland is largely foreign, while that of Illinois is largely Ameri- 
can, the fact that Cleveland has developed a high degree of 
efficiency in teaching the mechanics of reading in the lower grades 
becomes doubly impressive. Gratifying as these results seem, 
there is a danger which must be pointed out. It will be shown in 
the next chapter that very frequently third-grade pupils have 
acquired the ability to pronounce words which is much in excess of 
their ability to secure the meaning from what they read. Further- 
more, the tests in comprehension which are reported later in this 



130 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



70 , 



7 th 



chapter show that Cleveland pupils are behind pupils of certain 
other cities in ability to interpret what they read. Hence it would 
appear that the great fluency with which the pupils of Cleveland 
pronounce words at sight may have been obtained at the sacrifice 

of some of the other qualities 
which go to make up an efficient 
reader. 

RESULTS OF THE SILENT-READING 
TESTS 

At the same time that the 
pupils were tested in oral reading 
they were also tested in silent 
reading. The description of the 
silent-reading tests, together with 
the directions for giving them 
and the methods of scoring the 
results, have been given in chap, 
iii. As in the case of the oral- 
reading tests, all silent-reading 
tests were scored by the writer. 
When all the tests had been 
scored, they were arranged in 
order on the basis of the time 
required to read ioo words. The 
distribution of 1,831 pupils of 
Cleveland is shown in Table 
XXXVII. The table reads as 
follows: In the second grade 1 pupil, or 0.30 per cent, requires 
from 5 to 9 seconds to read 100 words; 2 pupils, or 0.61 per 
cent, require from 10 to 14 seconds to read 100 words, etc. 
The table in itself forms a surface of frequency. In the second 
grade the distribution is very wide indeed. Throughout the third, 
fourth, and fifth grades the rate of the majority of the pupils 
increases noticeably and the distribution decreases greatly. There 
is little change in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. The fact 
that there are no pupils in the seventh and eighth grades who read 




2nd 

Cleveland average 

Illinois schools 

Diagram XVI. — Average scores in 
oral reading in six grades in the 
Cleveland schools and in 23 Illinois 
schools. 



THE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 131 

as rapidly as some pupils do in the lower grades may be explained 
by the fact that the selection for the upper grades is of such a 
character that it requires a more careful type of reading. 

The point of greatest significance revealed by the table is that 
the second, third, and fourth grades represent the period at which 
greatest progress is made in rate of silent reading. During these 
years the ability of the pupil to recognize words at sight increases 
so rapidly that the eye moves along the lines at an increasingly 
rapid rate, and in a majority of cases the rate of silent reading 
becomes more rapid than the rate of oral reading. Some of the 
apparent progress in the fifth grade may be due to elimination of 
some of the slowest readers. The table reveals the discouraging 
fact that there are many pupils in the upper grades for whom silent 
reading is a no more rapid process than oral reading. 

Comparison of Cleveland pupils with others. — Table XXXVIII 
presents the average speed and quality scores in silent reading of 
1,831 Cleveland pupils and of 2,654 pupils of thirteen other cities. 
A comparison of the rates of silent reading is made in Diagram 
XVII. This diagram shows a marked superiority in the rate of 
silent reading on the part of Cleveland's pupils in all grades. 

Diagram XVIII presents a comparison of the quality scores in 
silent reading. The results in this case are not in favor of Cleve- 
land's pupils; in fact, the diagram shows that the results for 
Cleveland are decidedly low. 

These comparative facts raise a most important question. Does 
the quality of reading always decrease when the rate increases? 
An answer to this question was considered of such importance that 
a detailed study was made of the relation which exists between 
speed and quality of silent reading. 

GENERAL RELATION BETWEEN RATE AND QUALITY IN SILENT READING 

For the purpose of this study the relation between speed and 
quality was determined by two methods. According to the first 
method, the records of the pupils of each grade were arranged in 
order from the most rapid to the slowest. These records were then 
divided into three equal groups (tertiles) . The most rapid third 
was designated by the term "rapid," the slowest third by the term 



132 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



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THE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 



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134 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 



"slow," and the middle third by the term "medium." In a similar 
manner the quality records were divided into tertiles, and the thirds 
were designated, in order, "good," "medium," and "poor." Upon 
the basis of this classification an individual record must fall into 
one of the following nine classes: rapid speed and good quality; 
rapid speed and medium quality; rapid speed and poor quality; 
medium speed and good quality; medium speed and medium 
quality; medium speed and poor quality; slow speed and 
good quality; slow speed and medium quality; slow speed and poor 
quality. The percentage of each grade which fell in each of the 
nine classes was calculated. The average percentage of cases for 

TABLE XXXVIII 

Average Speed and Quality Scores in Silent Reading of 1,831 Cleveland 
Pupils and of 2,654 Pupils of Other Cities 



Grade 


Rate for Cleveland 


Rate for Thirteen 
Cities 


Quality for 
Cleveland 


Quality for Thirteen 
Cities 


II 


I.96 

2-57 
2.76 
2.74 
3.00 
2.89 
307 


1-5° 
2.30 
2.20 

2-57 
2.79 
2.69 
2.87 


25.2 
32.I 

17-5 
22.0 
26.1 
19.7 
24.2 


3i-5 
37-3 
28.8 


Ill 


IV 


v 


3i-8 

39- 1 
21 .6 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


26.9 





all the grades falling in each of the nine classes was then deter- 
mined. The results are presented in Diagram XIX. 

This diagram emphasizes the fact that good readers are usually 
not slow and poor readers are usually not fast. It is evidently not 
safe to lay down any absolute rule. The average teacher is con- 
fronted with pupils who might fall in any one or all of the nine 
classes mentioned. There are good readers who are rapid and 
there are good readers who are slow. There are rapid readers who 
retain much of what they read and there are rapid readers who 
retain little. The points of greatest significance revealed by the 
table are the facts that high rate and good quality are more com- 
monly related than slow rate and good quality, and that slow rate 
and poor quality are more commonly related than rapid rate and 
poor quality. 



TEE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 135 
5.00 



4.00 



3.00 



2.00 



1.00 





1 
• 
• 
• 

3L21 






2'97 






• 
1 
1 

• / 
1 / 

• • 

2<T21 




*. ■"" 


1}97 




• 

* -if 


/ 1 S 
S *yS 

"U21 






197 




y 


1 
1 
• 
1 











2nd 



3rd 



4th 



5th 



6th 



7th 8th 



Diagram XVII. — Average scores in the rate of silent reading of 1,831 Cleveland 
pupils and of 2,654 pupils of thirteen other cities. Dotted line shows Cleveland scores 
and solid line those of other cities. 



60 



50 



40 



30 



20 











1 
1 






38^2 






^*17 t l / 












1 / 












l' 












/| 












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""lT?|2^ 






1 

1 
I 
1 




s 
* 








i 
1 
1 
1 

•1 





2nd* 3rd 



4th 



5th 



6th 



7th 



8 th 



Diagram XVIII. — Average scores in the quality of silent reading of 1,831 Cleve- 
land pupils and of 2,654 pupils of thirteen other cities. Dotted line shows Cleveland 
scores and solid line those of other cities. 



136 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



The Cleveland Survey monograph entitled Measuring the Work 
of the Public Schools reports a similar study in which the records 
included in this investigation were distributed as follows: In the 
case of speed and of quality 25 per cent of the records were included 
in the best group, 50 per cent of the records in the medium group, 
and 25 per cent of the records in the poorest group. The average 
percentage of records falling in each of the nine classes was deter- 
mined as outlined above. The percentage for each class was as 
follows: rapid speed and good quality, 10; rapid speed and medium 



14JJ 


n% 


B* 






Rapid Speed and 
Good Quality 


Medium Speed and 
Oood Quality 


Slow speed and 
Good Quality 






\2% 


11* 


1C# 






Rapid Speed and 
Medium Quality 


Medium Speed and 
Medium Quality 


Slow Speed and 
Medium Quality 






ef. 


u* 


15* 






Rapid Speed and 
Poor Quality 


HedluB Speed and 
Poor Quality 


Slow Speed and 
Poor Quality 



Diagram XIX. — Percentage of 1,831 Cleveland pupils found in each of nine 
groups in speed and quality in silent reading. 

quality, 12; rapid speed and poor quality, 4; medium speed and 
good quality, 11; medium speed and medium quality, 26; medium 
speed and poor quality, 12; slow speed and good quality, 4; slow 
speed and medium quality, 12; slow speed and poor quality, 9. 

The significant fact brought out by a comparison of these results 
with those reported in Diagram XIX is that each study emphasizes 
the same general relation between speed and quality of silent 
reading. 

The second method of determining the relation between speed 
and quality in silent reading was as follows: The average compre- 
hension score of all pupils reading 100 words in 100 seconds was 



THE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 137 

found for each grade. A similar average was found for all pupils 
in each grade reading 100 words in 90 seconds, 80 seconds, 70 sec- 
onds, etc. The results are presented in Table XXXIX. The 
table reads as follows: In the second grade the average compre- 
hension score for all pupils who required from 98 to 102 seconds 
to read 100 words was 17; the average comprehension score for all 
pupils who required from 88 to 92 seconds to read 100 words was 19. 
In comparing the average scores made by the selected pupils of the 
various grades, it should be remembered that second- and third- 
grade pupils read "Tiny Tad," fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade 
pupils read "The Grasshopper," and seventh- and eighth-grade 
pupils read "Ancient Ships." 

TABLE XXXIX 

Average Quality Scores in Silent Reading of All Pupils Reading 
at Various Rates 



Grade 


IOO 
Sec. 


90 

Sec. 


80 
Sec. 


70 
Sec. 


60 
Sec. 


Sec. 


40 
Sec. 


3° 

Sec. 


20 
Sec. 


IS 
Sec. 




1 

word 

per 

sec. 


I . I 

words 

per 

sec. 


1-25 

words 

per 

sec. 


I.42 

words 

per 

sec. 


I.62 

words 
per 
sec. 


2 

words 
per 
sec. 


2-5 

words 
per 
sec. 


3-3 

words 

per 

sec. 


5 

words 

per 

sec. 


6.5 

words 
per 
sec. 


II 

Ill 

IV 


17 
19 


19 

21 


20 
24 


23 
29 
12 

13 
19 


24 
28 

IS 

20 

27 
10 


24 
28 

15 
20 
28 
17 
19 


25 
3° 
17 
22 
22 

19 

21 


31 

34 
22 
26 
28 
20 

25 


30 
41 
22 

24 
3° 
26 

29 


36 
28 
14 


V 








33 
23 
28 


VI 








VII 








VIII 










18 

















The table shows that with few exceptions the average quality 
score for all pupils reading at given rates increases as the rate 
increases. Some few exceptions to this rule appear in the table. 
Had more cases been involved, it is believed that most of these 
exceptions would have been eliminated. It is apparent from the 
results presented in the table that the rate of reading may become 
so fast that quality is sacrificed. The average comprehension 
scores of the most rapid readers in the third, fourth, sixth, and 
eighth grades illustrate the point in question. 

This analysis of the relation between speed and quality in silent 
reading shows very clearly the relative advantage which the more 



138 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

rapid readers possess. If we accept the general principle that 
rapid rate and good quality usually go together, we are left with 
the complex problem of explaining why Cleveland pupils who read 
rapidly on the average are less able to give back what they read 
than are the pupils in other schools who were tested with the same 
selections. 

EXPLANATION OF THE CLEVELAND RECORD 

The problem with which we are confronted at this point is 
solved by a consideration of the relative emphasis on speed and 
quality in the different grades. In Diagram XX rate and quality 
are both represented by a single curve of progress. The rate of 
reading is represented along horizontal distances and the quality 
along vertical distances. Different grades are represented by small 
circles which appear at various points along the curve of progress. 
The readjustments in the separate diagrams for speed and for 
quality which were made necessary by the use of different selections 
are omitted from these diagrams for the sake of increased clearness 
and simplicity. Inasmuch as it was impossible to equate a unit 
of speed as represented in the diagram exactly in terms of a unit 
of quality, care must be observed in interpreting the curves of 
progress. As the diagrams are drawn, the most significant points 
for our consideration are revealed by the changes in the direction of 
progress which occur from time to time along the curve of progress. 

The facts in regard to Cleveland and the other cities are pre- 
sented in Diagram XX. Here we see that the rate of the second 
grade in Cleveland is nearly 2 words per second, while the rate of 
the corresponding grade in other cities is about i| words per second. 
The quality of the second grade in Cleveland, on the other hand, 
is 25, while that of the same grade in other cities is 30. Following 
the progress of the Cleveland curve, it is noticed that there is a 
rapid gain in speed up to the fourth grade, shown by the fact that 
the curve turns sharply toward the right. The progress is irregular 
as to quality. There is a relapse to a lower level in passing from 
the third to the fourth grade. Even after improvement in quality 
begins in the fifth grade progress is irregular and distinctly slow 
at first. 



THE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 139 
60 












w 


.Ison 






p 7 


60 














/ 




50 






3 

A 




%., 


\ 

•..6/} 


\ < 


-*-0 8 

iiiinc; ' 


40 


Obi 


ervai 


ion 


\ 


• 


Y 

Vi 


> 














'*./ 


% 
















y 


\ 














y 










30 








/ 














3 


»TT 


15 

Aj4 








^6 


20 




l/ 















1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 

Diagram XX. — Average scores in speed and quality in silent reading in each 
grade in Cleveland and in thirteen other cities and in three selected Cleveland schools. 



140 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

The curve for the other cities has a wholly different character. 
During the early years rate improves relatively more than does 
quality, but there is steady progress in both. In the middle of the 
elementary course there is a definite change in relation, the upper 
grades showing greater improvement in quality. This would seem 
to mean that the mechanical phases of reading must be mastered 
first, and their mastery is shown by the attainment of satisfactory 
speed; thereafter the greater emphasis should fall on quality. 

The whole solution of the problem regarding high rate and 
deficient quality is now clear. There is not enough attention given 
to the interpretation of what is read in the grades up to the fourth. 
There is indeed a high degree of success in perfecting the mechanical 
operations, as shown in the oral-reading scores and in the rate of 
silent reading, but the ultimate achievement of the schools is below 
what it should be in quality because interpretation is not adequately 
stressed in the lower and intermediate grades. 

Achievement of various schools. — The scores for the various 
schools reported in this chapter are based on the records of a 
limited number of pupils of each grade. While it is felt that the 
average score for each grade serves as a fairly accurate index of its 
achievement, it is possible that the average score might have been 
slightly different had all the pupils been tested. The following 
comparisons of different schools are not so valuable, therefore, from 
the standpoint of rigid accuracy as they are suggestive of the kind 
of analyses which would be productive in every school system. 

The lower part of Diagram XX shows the results obtained in 
speed and quality of silent reading in three schools. Fifteen pupils 
of each grade were tested in the Observation School and in the 
Wilson School. Seven pupils of each grade were tested in the 
Quincy School. The diagram shows that the Observation School 
makes a high record in quality of reading in all grades excepting 
the fourth. The relatively low score in the fourth grade presents 
a real problem for solution. The Wilson School makes unusually 
rapid progress in the second, third, and fourth grades in both speed 
and quality. Beyond the fifth grade progress is steady and fairly 
consistent. The peculiar relative achievement of the fourth and 
fifth grades is unusual and would suggest that the proper amount 



THE INVESTIGATION OF READING IN A CITY SYSTEM 141 

of emphasis is not given in these grades to problems of silent read- 
ing. The curve for the Quincy School is very irregular. From the 
second to the sixth grade inclusive very little progress is made in 
quality of reading. The comparative study of the records of these 
schools suggests that there is real need in some schools for a clearer 
definition of the points to be emphasized in each grade and for a 
clearer realization on the part of the teacher of the specific means 
by which the desired goal can be attained. 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

The facts brought out in the investigation of reading in Cleve- 
land were as follows: 

1 . The average achievement in oral reading reaches a high level 
for the city as a whole. 

2. Variations among schools and among individuals of the same 
class are very wide. 

3. Sex and nationality make for variations in oral-reading 
achievement. Methods of teaching reading offer very little influ- 
ence when the city as a whole is considered. 

4. In rate of silent reading Cleveland is ahead of thirteen other 
cities, but behind these cities in ability to interpret what is read. 

5. In general, good quality and rapid reading commonly go 
hand in hand. Poor quality and slow reading are, in like manner, 
commonly related. 

The conclusions concerning Cleveland's needs were as follows: 
i . More emphasis should be laid on interpretation and relatively 
less on drill in formal reading. 

2. In many schools there is need for a clearer definition of the 
phases of the work to be emphasized in each grade. 

3. In the city as a whole and in each individual school there is 
need for co-operative effort in careful studies of the problems of 
teaching reading in order that scientific conclusions might be 
reached concerning best modes of procedure. 



CHAPTER VII 

SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN READING 

The data secured through the use of the oral-reading and silent- 
reading tests point toward certain tentative conclusions in regard 
to many important problems in reading. It is the purpose of this 
chapter to present the results obtained through a study of each of the 
following problems: (i) periods of growth in reading achievement; 
(2) rates in oral reading and in silent reading; (3) relation of growth 
in oral-reading ability to comprehension of subject-matter read. 

PERIODS OF GROWTH IN READING ACHIEVEMENT 

The results of this study are based on data secured by testing 
471 pupils and students of the Elementary School, the High School, 
the College departments, and the Graduate Schools of the Univer- 
sity of Chicago. The distribution of the persons tested was as 
follows: 254 elementary-school pupils, 172 high-school students, 
27 college students, and 18 graduate students. All the subjects 
took both the oral- and the silent-reading tests, excepting the first- 
grade pupils, who took the oral-reading test only. 

Diagram XXI presents the curve of progress for oral reading. 
The solid line represents the standard achievement by grades of 
2,193 pupils. The broken line represents the achievement of the 
classes tested for this study. The diagram shows that in general 
these pupils made scores which are superior to the standard oral- 
reading scores. The fact that the tests were given early in the year 
accounts for the apparent relative inferiority of the pupils of the 
lower grades. Since growth takes place most rapidly in these 
grades, a difference of two or three months makes a noticeable 
difference in absolute achievement. 

The curve of progress may be divided arbitrarily into three parts 
for the purpose of this discussion. During the first, second, and 
third grades progress is very rapid. During the fourth, fifth, sixth, 
and seventh grades progress continues at a regular rate, but by no 

142 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN READING 



143 



means so rapidly as in the primary grades. At the beginning of 
the high-school period achievement in oral reading is at a relatively 
high level. Very little additional growth takes place during the 
high-school and college periods. 

It is in harmony with natural expectation that the first two or 
three years of school work should be characterized by rapid growth 
in reading ability. The pupil at this time is devoting a great deal 
of his attention to the acquisition of reading habits. Every lesson 
brings the pupil in contact with many new words, and he has 




70 



I II III IV Col. Orad. 



Diagram XXI. — Curve of progress for oral reading 

abundant opportunity to associate the sight of symbols with their 
proper pronunciation. The words which are learned at this time are 
usually within the comprehension of the pupil, and word-mastery 
can progress rapidly, uncomplicated by the problem of mastering 
meanings. Furthermore, the power of word-analysis develops so 
rapidly during the second and third grades that the pupil is able 
to pronounce at sight most of the common words by the beginning 
of the fourth grade. 

During the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades silent reading becomes 
the dominant type of reading. Ability to read is now measured 
largely in terms of a pupil's ability to master the thought of what 



144 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

he reads. The pronunciation of a very large proportion of the 
words is more or less familiar. Hence the opportunities for increase 
in oral-reading ability are much fewer than during the preceding 
period, and we should naturally expect progress to be less marked. 
On the other hand, there are factors operating which tend to increase 
the pupil's ability in oral reading. The subject-matter which is 
read brings the pupil daily into new fields of thought and in contact 
with some new words. In order to use these words in class dis- 
cussion or even in oral reading, the pupil is constantly analyzing 
words or looking up their pronunciation in the dictionary. Further- 
more, the pronunciation of partly familiar words becomes more 
rapid and accurate and the words of a selection are grouped together 
more economically and effectively. All of these factors result in 
regular progress in oral reading during the intermediate grades, 
although the rate of progress is less rapid than in the lower grades. 

By the time a student reaches the high-school period his reading 
habits are definitely established. The subject-matter studied at 
this time repeats for the most part the reading vocabulary which 
the pupil has already mastered. Technical terms peculiar to 
certain subjects, proper names, foreign derivatives, etc., are 
encountered, however, from time to time, and the pupil is forced 
to continue his study of words. Hence there is some progress from 
year to year through the high-school and college period, measured 
largely by the scope of the student's general reading and by the 
character of his specialized study. 

Diagram XXII presents the curve of progress for rate of silent 
reading. The solid line represents the standard rates for 2,654 
pupils. The broken line represents the achievement of the classes 
tested for this study. During the second and third grades the 
rates at which these pupils read silently approximate the standard 
rates. From the fourth grade on more rapid progress is made than 
is indicated by the standard rates. The diagram shows that up 
to the sixth grade the rate at which these pupils read silently 
increases very rapidly. Beyond this grade progress is irregular and 
of no large consequence. The diagram supports in a general way 
the conclusion reached by Courtis that the curve for careful reading 
is practically constant from the sixth grade on. This means that 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN READING 



145 



the rate and character of one's serious reading are fixed in early- 
school life. 

During the second and third grades a pupil is developing rapidly 
in his ability to recognize words at sight. It is in harmony with 
natural expectation that the rate of silent reading should increase 
rapidly at this time. As the ability to recognize words increases 
the power to recognize larger and larger units at a single fixation 
of the eye develops, with the result that during the intermediate 
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2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th I II III IV Col. Grad. 
Diagram XXII. — Curve of progress for rate of silent reading 



grades the eye moves along the lines at a constantly increasing rate. 
The maximum development for careful reading is approximated in 
the sixth grade. Additional points of explanation will be brought 
out in the following paragraphs. 

Diagram XXIII presents the curve of progress for quality of 
silent reading. The solid line represents the standard scores for 
2,654 pupils. The broken line represents the achievement of the 
classes tested for this study. The diagram shows that the scores 
for these pupils are superior throughout to the standard scores. 
During the second grade rapid progress is made in quality of silent 



146 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



reading. Progress continues through the third and fourth grades, 
but it is less marked. From the fifth grade on there is continuous 
rapid progress in the upper grades and in the high school. It is 
noted with some surprise that college and graduate students make 
lower scores than do high-school students. 



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Diagram XXIII. — Curve of progress for quality of silent reading 

The rapid improvement in the quality of silent reading at the 
beginning may be explained in part by the fact that the pupil 
improves rapidly in his ability to use reading as a tool for getting 
thought. Habits of attention and study are being developed and 
refined. The pupil's fund of experience is being rapidly enlarged, 
with the result that he is able to comprehend the meaning of what 
he reads more adequately. 

Some of the irregularities of the quality-curve for the first six 
years may be explained in part on the basis of the relative emphasis 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN READING 147 

which is given to speed and quality. A comparison of the curves 
for speed and quality shows that during the second grade speed 
receives relatively less emphasis than is normal, while quality, on 
the other hand, makes unusual progress. During the third grade 
speed is emphasized very largely, while there is little progress in 
quality. During the fourth and fifth years the growth in both 
speed and quality is normal. During the sixth year quality 
improves rapidly, but rate increases less rapidly than in the pre- 
ceding grade. This comparison suggests that improvement in 
speed and quality of silent reading may be due, in part, at least, 
to the emphasis which is given to each in the classroom. 

It is in harmony with natural expectation that the quality of 
one's reading should improve very distinctly during the fourth, 
fifth, sixth, and seventh grades. It is just at this time that the 
pupil learns to use reading in a large way as a tool to enlarge his 
world of meanings. He reads copiously and with a purpose. The 
natural result should be increased power in getting the thought of 
the printed page. As the pupil continues through the grammar 
grades and in the high school, his methods of study are improved. 
College and graduate students show less power than high-school 
pupils, according to the diagram. The explanation for this appar- 
ent decrease in reading efficiency lies largely in the fact that adults 
are much more self-conscious during a test than are high-school 
pupils. The following interesting facts were brought out as a 
result of observations and questioning which were carried on by the 
writer: first, adults are more conscious of the significance of tests 
than are high-school pupils; second, they are less accustomed to 
study under the immediate observation of others, and hence feel 
more confused; third, tests are found to be a severe trial in a very 
large proportion of the cases. These facts justify the acceptance 
of the above-mentioned explanation for the apparent decrease in 
reading efficiency of college and graduate students. 

COMPARISON OF BATES IN ORAL READING AND IN SILENT READING 

The subjects for this study included the 471 pupils and students 
of the University of Chicago mentioned in the preceding study. 
The subject-matter upon which the rate of oral reading is based is 



148 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



paragraph 3 of the oral-reading scale. The selections upon which 
the rate of silent reading is based are the selections of the standard 
silent-reading tests. For the purpose of checking the relative diffi- 
culty of "Tiny Tad" and paragraph 3 a class of third-grade pupils 
were asked to read them orally. The results showed that they were 
practically equal in difficulty for oral reading. The average time 
required by the various grades to read paragraph 3 was determined 
and the rate was expressed in terms of the number of words read 
per second. The results by grades were as follows: 

First Second Third Fourth 

Year Year Year Year 

High High High High 

IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIB School School School School Col. Grad. 

1. 00 1.86 2.45 3.15 3.51 3.80 3.90 3.90 4.10 4.00 3.98 4.02 3.80 

The solid line in Diagram XXIV represents the curve of progress 
for rate of oral reading. The significant point about the curve is 

























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Diagram XXIV. — Comparison of oral- and silent-reading rates of 471 pupils 
and students in the University of Chicago. 

that progress continues throughout the grades and reaches a maxi- 
mum rate during the high-school period. The increase in rate 
during the lower grades is due to the fact that words are recognized 
at sight with increasing rapidity and groups of words are combined 
into more effective units for oral expression. The very high rate 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN READING 149 

during the high-school period may be accounted for in part by the 
rapid offhand way in which high-school students do most easy tasks. 
The decrease in the rate of graduate students is due to the greater 
deliberateness which characterizes older people. 

The dotted line in Diagram XXIV represents the curve of 
progress for rate of silent reading. The diagram shows that the 
rate of silent reading for the second and third grades is less rapid 
than the rate of oral reading. This is significant in view of the fact 
that the two selections were read orally at the same rate by a group 
of pupils of corresponding ability. It indicates that when a pupil 
is asked to read a selection for the content he may read it more 
slowly and more carefully than if he were reading it orally without 
directing special attention to the content. During the fourth, 
fifth, and sixth grades pupils read silently at a rate which is dis- 
tinctly higher than the oral-reading rate. The fact that the rate 
of careful silent reading exceeds the rate of oral reading needs 
explanation. The ordinary child who has reached the fourth 
grade has had a great deal of training in oral reading, with the 
result that he can now use reading independently. As has been 
pointed out in previous paragraphs, he begins to read more rapidly 
than in the primary grades. He becomes interested in the subject- 
matter and his eyes run along the lines at a rate which surpasses 
the rate of vocalization. As a result we find that the rate of silent 
reading exceeds the ordinary rate of oral reading in the intermediate 
grades. It is interesting to note, on the other hand, that after the 
fourth grade the rate of silent reading parallels very closely the rate 
of oral reading. This fact suggests that the habits of oral reading 
which receive so much attention in the schoolroom today may have 
a retarding influence upon the rate of silent reading. 

RELATION OF ORAL-READING ACHIEVEMENT TO COMPREHENSION OF 
SUBJECT-MATTER READ 

The question has frequently been raised: Is it possible to develop 
so rapidly in ability to pronounce words that one is able to read 
orally subject-matter which is beyond his comprehension? This 
study was undertaken to determine a partial answer at least to this 
question. 



.i$o STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

During the winter of 19 14 the oral-reading test was given to the 
pupils of the Elementary School of the University of Chicago. 
Four questions were carefully prepared for each paragraph. The 
questions for paragraphs 3, 7, and 11 were as follows: 

Paragraph 3 

1 . Where did the king and queen live ? 

2. Why were they unhappy? 

3. What did they find at their door one day ? 

4. What did they do with the little boy and girl ? 

Paragraph 7 

1. What time of day was described in the paragraph ? 

2. Behind what had the sun gone down ? 

3. Describe the sky as it looked on this evening. 

4. What is meant by "The dull mountains stood in contrast against the 
western sky"? 

Paragraph ii 

1. What is meant by "The attractions of the American prairies have been 
overcome by the azure skies of Italy" ? 

2. What are antiquities of Roman architecture? 

3. What are architectural studies? 

4. What is meant by "My delight in these studies verges on to a fanati- 
cism"? 

The pupils read the successive paragraphs of the oral-reading 
test according to the usual directions. After the reading of each 
paragraph the pupil was asked the questions which covered that 
paragraph. A grade of 25 per cent was given for each question 
answered correctly and a grade of 12^ per cent for a partial answer. 
A record was made of the average score of the pupils of each class 
for the first selection of the test and of the average score of the class 
for the hardest selection which each pupil was able to read success- 
fully. Four weeks later the test was given again. At this time 
the test was preceded by a fifteen-minute study-period. The 
following directions for the study-period were given: "You are 
going to take the oral-reading test again. Study the paragraphs 
carefully for 15 minutes so that you can read them as well as possible 
and so that you can answer any questions which might be asked 
about each paragraph." 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN READING 



I5 1 



The solid line in Diagram XXV represents the average achieve- 
ment of each of the grades from IIB to VIIB inclusive for the first 
reading, and the dotted line represents the average achievement by 
grades for the second reading. The point revealed by the diagram, 
which is significant for the present discussion, is that the improve- 
ment in oral-reading achievement which resulted from fifteen 
minutes of study and from the natural growth in reading ability 




Diagram XXV. — Influence of a fifteen-minute study-period on achievement in 
oral reading. 

during one month was practically uniform throughout the grades. 
As a result of this uniformity any striking differences in comprehen- 
sion scores will measure with a fair degree of accuracy the relation 
of the increase in oral-reading ability to the comprehension of what 
is read. 

Diagram XXVI shows the influence which the increase in oral- 
reading ability had upon the comprehension of what was read. The 
curve which represents the scores made on the easiest paragraph 



152 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 



without study shows that the pupils of the second grade were able 
to answer the questions on the first paragraph practically as well 
as were pupils in the upper grades. Some improvement resulted 
from a careful study of the paragraphs. This was uniform, but not 
striking. Inasmuch as the paragraph was easy and the thought 

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Easiest paragraph without study >. 

Easiest paragraph with study 

Hardest paragraph without study --- 

Hardest paragraph with study 

Diagram XXVI. — Comprehension of the subject-matter read as related to the 
mastery of mechanical difficulties. 

simple, the pupils of the lower grades were able to understand its 
meaning practically as well as the pupils of the upper grades. 

The curve which represents the comprehension scores for the 
hardest paragraphs read without study by pupils in the second grade 
drops very little below the curve for the comprehension scores for 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN READING 153 

the easiest paragraph. These high scores in comprehension are 
easily explained by the fact that, although the pupil makes rapid 
progress in oral reading at this stage, he does not encounter many 
words whose meanings are not already familiar to him because of 
their frequent use in everyday conversation. Hence if the word is 
recognized successfully, its meaning is understood immediately. 
During the third and fourth grades the comprehension scores drop 
surprisingly. The continued rapid progress in oral reading during 
these grades causes the pupil to encounter a large number of new 
words whose meanings he has not mastered. His power of word- 
analysis enables him to pronounce the words successfully, but his 
ability to interpret the meaning of what he reads lags behind. 
During the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades the pupil reads widely. 
His world of meanings is greatly enlarged. He has become more 
highly trained in discovering meanings from the context as he reads. 
Hence we note that the curve of comprehension rises gradually 
during these grades in spite of the fact that oral-reading ability has 
been increasing constantly. 

The curve for the comprehension of the hardest paragraph read 
with study shows some very interesting facts. Pupils of Grade IIB 
make a better score on the hardest paragraph read with study than 
on the easiest paragraph read without study. This is explained by 
the fact that their power to pronounce words independently at this 
time is so limited that it does not bring them in contact with many 
words whose meanings are unfamiliar. Hence the study of the 
paragraphs enabled the pupils to master the meaning of the hardest 
paragraphs more fully than they had mastered the meaning of the 
easiest paragraph through sight reading. Pupils of Grades II A, 
III B, and III A have developed considerable ability in independent 
word-analysis. As a result their study of the paragraphs enabled 
them to read successfully paragraphs which were much beyond 
their comprehension. The effect of this is shown by the rapid 
decline of the comprehension-curve. By questioning each pupil 
carefully concerning his method of study during the study-period 
it was found that most of the pupils spent the greater part of their 
time analyzing words in order to pronounce them. The pupils in 
the grades beyond the third, however, reported more and more 



154 STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL READING 

emphasis given in their study to the meaning of what they read. 
This change in the direction of their attention, together with their 
increasing background of facts and meanings, enabled them to 
secure relatively higher scores in comprehension than they had made 
on easier paragraphs without study. The foregoing discussion leads 
to the conclusion that it is possible to advance so rapidly in ability 
to pronounce words that one's ability to comprehend the more 
difficult passages which he can read successfully is relatively 
decreased. This is particularly true if attention is directed to pro- 
nunciation of words rather than to meanings. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The tentative conclusions which have been reached as a result 
of the various investigations reported in this chapter relate only to 
the school in which the investigations took place. Whether or not 
these conclusions relate to all schools is a problem for further 
investigation. The universal value which these studies have is that 
they point out the presence of significant problems connected with 
the teaching of reading. As a result of the objective study of read- 
ing in more than two hundred schools, it is believed that there are 
abundant opportunities for productive studies of reading along 
similar lines in each classroom. 



INDEX 



Abell, A. M., 14, 24, 26. 

Achievement: expressed in numerical 

terms, 43; growth periods in, 142-47. 
Administration of reading tests, 28. 
Adopted values, 93-94. 
Aldine method, 127. 
American schools, 129. 
Ancient Ships, 50. 
Anderson, H. W., 24, 29. 
Answers to questions, 105, in. 
Assimilation, 22. 
Average quality marks, 54. 
Average rates, 54. 
Average scores in oral reading, 121, 124, 

125. 
Ayres, L. P., 9, 82, 118. 

BSer, Max, 22, 26. 

Boggs, L. P., 26. 

Bowden, J. H., 22, 23, 26. 

Breathing, relation of, to oral reading, 27. 

Brown, H. A., 15, 17, 18, 19, 26. 

Brownell School, 124. 

Buckingham, B. R., 71, 83. 

Careful reading, rate of, 20. 

Case- Woodland School, 124. 

Check card (phonetic), 3. 

Class scores, 40, 42. 

Cleveland schools, 75, 80, 119. 

Cleveland survey, 14, 28, 118. 

Comparison of comprehension in oral 
and silent reading, 25. 

Comparison of rates: arithmetic mean 
and harmonic mean, 16; oral and 
silent, 25, 147. 

Comprehension: basis of, 105; direc- 
tions to pupils, 14; during oral and 
silent reading, 25; growth in, 25; 
methods of scoring, 16; methods of 
testing, 16. 

Correlation : between oral-reading 
achievement and comprehension of 
subject-matter read, 149; between 
speed and comprehension of silent 
reading, 24-25, 131-38; between two 
records for rate, 105. 

Courtis, S. A., n, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20, 
21, 26, 27. 

Curve of progress: Oral reading, 45, 143; 
quality of silent reading, 54, 146; rate 
of silent reading, 53, 145. 



Dearborn, W. F., 21, 22, 27. 
Distribution of reading ability, 82. 

Eagle School, 124. 

Educational investigations, Yearbook of, 

27. 
English, standard tests in, 26. 
Equality of differences, 63. 
Errors in oral reading, 35. 
Eye co-ordination, 80. 
Eye movements, habits of, 21. 

Failures by grades, 81, 82. 
Familiarity, influence of, 21. 
Freeman, F. N., 17. 

Gill, E. J., 27. 
Gilliland, A. R., n, 18, 27. 
Grading reading errors, 78. 
Grand Rapids Survey, 47. 
Grasshoppers, The, 49. 
Gray, C. T., 27. 
Gross errors, 78, 79. 

Growth periods in reading achievement, 
142-47. 

Hebrew schools, 129. 
Hendricks, E. L., 21, 24, 25, 28. 
Huey, E. B., 21, 22, 28. 

Illinois schools, 74, 80. 

Individual records, 38, 39. 

Individual score sheet, 41. 

Individual scores, 40. 

Individual variations, 123. 

Influence on oral-reading progress: of 
fifteen minutes of study, 151; of 
method, 128; of nationality, 129; 
of sex, 127. 

Initial oral-reading study: method of 
selecting paragraphs, 61; purpose, 60; 
reorganization of paragraphs, 65; scal- 
ing paragraphs, 69; school population 
tested, 68; scoring results, 68; steps 
of difference between paragraphs, 64. 

Inner speech, 29. 

Insertions, 35, 79. 

Investigations of reading, 28. 

Italian schools, 129. 



Jones, R. G., 2, 28. 
Judd, C. H, 28, 108, 118. 



155 



i56 



STUDIES OF ELEMENTARY -SCHOOL READING 



Kansas Silent-Reading Test, 8, 29. 
Kelly, F. J., 8, 9, 16, 29. 
Kentucky School, 124. 

Learning to read, 26. 
Lip movements, 21. 
McLaughlin, K., 105. 
Materials for reading tests, 28. 
Mead, C. D., 14, 24, 25, 29. 
Measurement of ability to read, 26. 
Measurement of efficiency of instruction, 

26. 
Measuring-scale for oral reading, 92; 

validity of, 93. 
Mechanics of elementary reading, 2, 28. 
Messmer, 0., 22, 27. 
Methods of teaching reading, 27. 
Minor errors, 78. 
Monosyllabic words, 22. 

Normal distribution of reading ability, 83. 
Normal frequency curve, 89. 
Normal probability integral, 85. 
Normal reading, rate of, 20. 
"Normal surface of frequency," 70. 
Numerical score, 44. 

Oberholtzer, E. E., 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 22, 
23. 29. 

Observation School, 139. 

Omissions, 35, 79. 

Oral reading: comprehension of, 25; 
improvement of, from grade to grade, 
90; loss in rate of, during summer, 24, 
29; measure for, 42; measurement of , 
27; ranks compared, 37; rate of, 23; 
relation of breathing to, 27; tests of, 
28. 

Oral reproductions, 107. 

Outhwaite School, 125. 

Packer, P. C, 24, 29. 
Paragraphs: methods of selecting, 61; 
second series of, 73; third series of, 74; 
P. E. equivalents, 69. 
Pintner, R., 15, 16, 23, 24, 25, 29. 
Practice in reading, influence of, 22. 
Practiced readers, 30. 
Probable error, 70, 83. 
Probability integral, 85. 
Purpose of thesis, 1. 

Quality of silent reading: method of 
determining, 54; relation to speed, 24; 
standard scores, 54; validity of stand- 
ards, 112. 

Quantz, J. A., 21, 22, 24, 30. 

Quartile deviation, 70. 

Quincy School, 125, 139. 



Rankings of paragraphs, 62. 

Rapid readers: achievement of, 134, 
I 36, _ 137; characteristics of, 20; 
superiority of, 24. 

Rapid reading, advantages and methods, 
26. 

Rate of silent reading, 19, 23; careful, 20; 
directions to pupils, 14; factors influen- 
cing, 21-23; influence of practice on, 
20, 22; methods of computing, 15; 
normal, 20; ordinary, 28; progress in, 
20; relation to quality, 24; standard 
rates by grades, 19; standards in, 19, 
27; terms in which expressed, 15; 
validity of standards, 112; very rapid, 

28._ 

Reading achievement, index of, 18. 
Reading errors: description of, 35; 

grading of, 78. 
Reading investigations: importance of, 

118; summary of, 10. 
Reading, oral and silent distinguished, 28. 
Reading paragraphs: initial series, 65- 

68; second series, 73; standardized, 

46; third series, 74. 
Reading tests, 28; administration of, 28; 

materials for, 28. 
Reading unit, 18. 
Reading vocabulary, 30. 
Real values in oral-reading scale, 94. 
Relation between rate and quality, 131. 
Relative ranks of schools, 94. 
Reliability of a single record for rate, 105. 
Repetitions, 35, 79. 
Reproductions: group-idea method, 108; 

methods of scoring, 17, 108; oral, 107; 

word-counting method, no; written, 

107. 
Revised score sheet, 55. 
Rice School, 125. 
Romanes, G. J., 30. 
Rubins, R. B., 30. 
Ruediger, W. E., 22, 30. 

Scaling paragraphs, 61, 69, 70; method 
of, 81. 

Schmitt, C, 30. 

School population tested, 74, 100, 112, 
119. 

Scoring oral-reading tests, 68, 76. 

Sholty, M., 30. 

Silent reading: quality of, 54; rate of, 19, 
23 ; relation between speed and quality, 
28; speed of, 53; tests of, 28. 

Silent-reading tests, the, 47; criticism of 
adopted methods, 103; directions for 
giving, 51, 52, 58; directions for scor- 
ing) 59 ; form in which printed, 103; 
length of, 104; limitations of, n 5-1 7; 
preliminary study, 99-103; results of, 



INDEX 



157 



130; subject-matter of, 48; validity of, 

99- 

Slow readers: achievement of, 134, 136, 
137; characteristics of, 20. 

Standard oral-reading test: conditions 
under which given, 32; directions for 
giving, 34; graphical representation of 
scores, 44, 45; limitations of, 96-98; 
scope of, 35; standards for scoring, 39; 
tabulation of data, 38; test paragraphs, 
33; validity of, 60. 

Standard scores: oral reading, 45, 47; 
quality of silent reading, 54; rate of 
silent reading, 54. 

Standard tests in English, 26. 

Standard vocabulary, 28. 

Standardized reading paragraphs, 46. 

Standards in rate of reading, 27. 

Standards of teaching efficiency, 31. 

Starch, D., n, 13, 15, 18, 19, 25, 30, 104. 

"Steps of difference" between para- 
graphs, 64. 

Steps of difference in difficulty, aver- 
age, 89. 

Substitutions, 35, 79. 

Surface of distribution, 123. 

Surface of frequency, 70. 

"Surface of normal distribution," 83. 

Tabulation sheet, 38, 39. 
Testing reading, methods of, 28. 
Tests: by whom given, 14; criticism of 
standard tests, 2-10; directions con- 



cerning speed and comprehension, 14; 
duration of, 12; form of presentation, 
12; indicating portions read, 13; 
Kansas silent-reading, 8; number of 
selections used, n ; standards in 
mechanics of elementary reading, 2; 
subject-matter for, 11; Thorndike's 
visual vocabulary scale, 4; under- 
standing of sentences, 6. 

Tests for expression, 37. 

Thorndike, E. L., 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 27, 31, 70. 

Tiny Tad, 48. 

Training testers, 120. 

Turner, E. A., 9, 31. 

Types of errors, 60, 126. 

University Elementary School, 142. 

Valentine, C. W., 31. 
Validity of standards, 68. 
Variations in schools, 124. 
Visual perception, 22. 
Visual vocabulary, scale for, 4. 
Vocabulary test, 28. 

Waldo, K. D., 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 20, 

25>3i- 
Ward method, 128. 
Weighting of errors, 78-80. 
Wilson School, 139. 
Written reproductions, 107. 

Yule, G., 16. 



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